WUBjgggm 




f! 



■■HBHBi 




ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR DRILLS 

ON 

MINIMUM ESSENTIALS 



By 
CARL HOLLIDAY 

Professor of English, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 

SOPHIA CAMENISCH 

r^ * 

Chairman of English Department, Parker High School, Chicago 



LAIRD & LEE, Inc., PUBLISHERS 
CHICAGO 



-r£ 






.v\<-> 



Copyright, 1922 

LAIRD & LEE 

Chicago, 111. 



JAN A 1922 



MADE IN U. S. A. 

©CU653634 



PREFACE 

I. The Material: Minimum Essentials 

A crying need of English teachers in the high 
schools today is an abundance of 'laboratory material" 
on grammar, exercises for profitable drill. This is 
recognized in the valuable Reports on Minimum Essen- 
tials published recently. This need was studied in the 
preparation of these fifty exercises, which aim at com- 
pleteness in covering those grammatical facts under- 
lying correct English emphasized in the Reports. The 
nomenclature is, as far as seemed practicable, that of 
the N. E. A. Report on Grammatical Nomenclature, 
referred to in the exercises as the G. N. Report. 

The exercises cover two points: (1) the study of 
the sentence as a whole to develop "sentence sense," 
and (2) the study of the correct forms of words and 
their relation to one another in the sentence. Enough 
explanation of the grammatical principles involved 
is given to make the exercises intelligible. They cover 
the grammar requirements for the early years of the 
high school. 

The exercises were evolved out of class work. 
They were used originally as separate drill laboratory 
sheets and were used in individual adjustment in 
revision or consultation periods. 

The aim has been to make the illustrations simple 
enough to meet the most elementary demands found in 
the high school. Some, however, especially the Review 
Exercises, are difficult enough for the most advanced 
students. The sentences for illustration have been 
taken largely from students' themes and the errors 



(the emphasis always being on the correct form) are 
such as students have made or do make. The vocabu- 
lary is largely theirs, and some attention has been 
given to making the content valuable, and suitable to 
the "teen" age. By their nature and variety, the exer- 
cises challenge the pupils' power of thought. They can 
be so used as to carry over the results of the drill into 
the application of the principles to the natural lan- 
guage in composition. 

II. The Spirit of the Book: Practical Projects and 
Adaptation to Individual Differences 

Two outstanding thoughts have been kept in mind : 
(1) making the material available for practical proj- 
ect work, and (2) adapting it for use in adjusting 
"individual differences." 

Every teacher feels the necessity of adapting the 
work (because of the great variety of local conditions 
which prevail) to meet the problems created by the 
influence of the non-school environment. The project 
constantly before the pupil is that of studying his own 
speech and that of others with a view to eradicating 
his own common, persistent errors. 

Students vary so greatly in their home environ- 
ment, previous preparation, and natural ability that 
the problem of group teaching becomes tremendously 
difficult. Probably the best means of adjustment is the 
supervised study period. These exercises are numer- 
ous and adapted to meet individual needs. The wise 
teacher will continue to sift exercises and to add new 
ones until the adaptation to the individual situation 
is as perfect as possible. 

III. Method: Some Suggestions for Use 

This book may be used with any grammar or com- 
position book. Its aim is to supplement a text-book, 



but it can be used alone. The exercises were arranged 
in accordance with Holliday's The Grammar of 
Present Bay English. 

As the order presented is the logical one, some 
teachers will prefer to begin with Part II, "The Parts 
of Speech," after some simple work in Part I on sen- 
tence faults. Throughout the book the more difficult 
parts are marked "Optional." The cross references, 
it is believed, are a valuable time-saver. 

While the exercises may be used in various ways, 
a school procedure which should yield good results is 
somewhat as follows: (1) discovery of errors in the 
oral and written composition by pupil, class, and 
teacher; (2) a grammar lesson based on these; (3) 
further drill as a lesson assignment; (4) after further 
composition, repetition of drill for those who need it. 
No one need mark time. Some pupils will need to 
return repeatedly to exercises which involve the most 
common errors. These exercises are the most numer- 
ous. 

In the meantime all the exercises cover preceding 
points so that the whole class has considerable repeti- 
tion of drill on the common, persistent errors. 

If these exercises help in determining the minimum 
essentials of English grammar and aid the pupil in 
mastering them ; if they help to foster, though ever so 
little, in our high school pupils a respect for and pride 
in good English, the aims of the writers will have been 
realized. 

Cael Holliday, 

University of Toledo, Toledo. 

Sophia Camenisch, 

Parker High School, Chicago. 



Table of Contents 

PART I. THE SENTENCE 

To develop "Sentence Sense." For recognition of 
the relationships of the various parts of the sentence 
to one another. 

PAGE 

Exercise 1. Word Groups. 11 

The sentence. 
The "comma sentence" error (comma 

blunder). 
The sentence and the phrase. 
The sentence and the clause. 

Exercise 2. Subject and Predicate. 16 

Complete subject and complete predicate. 
Skeleton: subject substantive and predi- 
cate verb. 

Exercise 3. Clauses. 20 

As parts of sentences. 
Principal and subordinate. 

Exercise 4. Parts of speech in sentences. 22 

The parts. 
Their simple uses. 

Exercise 5. Kinds of sentences as to use. 26 

Declarative and interrogative. 
Exclamatory and non-exclamatory. 
Usual classification: declarative, inter- 
rogative, imperative, exclamatory. 

Exercise 6. Kinds of sentences as to form. 27 

Simple. 
Compound. 
Complex. 

7 



Exercise 


7. 


Modifiers. 
Words. 
Phrases. 
Clauses. 


Exercise 


8. 


Complements. 
Direct object. 
Predicate nominative. 
Predicate adjective. 


Exercise 


9. 


Phrases. 

As to Form. 
Verb. 

Prepositional. 
Infinitive. 
Participial. 
Absolute. 


Exercise 


10. 


As to Use. 

Adjective. 
Adverb. 
Noun. 
Verb. 


Exercise 


11. 


Clauses as to Use. 
Adjective. 
Adverb. 
Noun. 


Exercise 


12. 


Independent Elements, 


Exercise 


13. 


Analysis of Sentences. 



PAGE 
30 



33 



35 



37 



38 



42 
44 



PART II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

To develop ability to understand the relation of 
words in sentences ; and to know the correct forms, and 
how to use them. 



Exercise 14. 



The Noun. 
Common. 
Proper. 



47 



Exercise 15. 


Collective. 


PAGE 

52 


Exercise 
Exercise 


16. 
17. 


Gender. 
Number. 

Ordinary Plurals. 


53 
55 


Exercise 18. 
Exercise 19. 


Unusual Plurals. 
Case. 

Genitive (Possessive). 


57 
62 


Exercise 


20. 


Nominative. 
Accusative (Objective). 
The Pronoun. 


68 


Exercise 


21. 


Personal. 


71 


Exercise 


22. 


(Compound Personal.) 


78 


Exercise 23. 


Relative. 


79 


Exercise 


24. 


Interrogative. 


83 


Exercise 


25. 


(Exercise on "who" and "whom. 


') 85 


Exercise 


26. 


Demonstrative and Indefinite. 


86 


Exercise 


27. 


Review of Pronouns. 


89 


Exercise 


28. 


The Adjective. 
Kinds and Uses. 
Phrases and Clauses. 


90 


Exercise 


29. 


The Article. 
The Verb. 


94 


Exercise 


30. 


Transitive, Intransitive, Linking 


\ 95 


Exercise 31. 
Exercise 32. 
Exercise 33. 
Exercise 34. 


Regular, Irregular. 100 

Auxiliary. 
Person and Number. 106 

Agreement of Subject and Predicate. 
Tense. Ill 

Conjugation. 

("shall" and "will.") 113 

9 



Exercise 35. 
Exercise 36. 



Exercise 37. 



Exercise 38. 

Exercise 39. 
Exercise 40. 

Exercise 41. 
Exercise 42. 
Exercise 43. 

Exercise 44. 

Exercise 45. 
Exercise 46. 
Exercise 47. 
Exercise 48. 
Exercise 49. 
Exercise 50. 



PAGE 

Voice. 115 

Mood. 117 

Indicative. 
Imperative. 
Subjunctive. 

The Verbal. 119 

Infinitive. 
Gerund. 
Participle. 

Troublesome Forms of Verbs. 125 

"Lie," "lay," etc. 

Review of Verbs. 127 

Correction of Errors in Sentence 

Structure. 130 

The Adverb. s 134 

Kinds. 

Simple or Conjunctive. 138 

Comparison of Adjectives and 

Adverbs. 139 

Distinction between Adjective and 
Adverb. 140 

The Preposition. 142 

The Conjunction. 144 

Correct Uses of "like" and "as." 147 

Eeview of Connectives. 148 

Contractions. 148 

Miscellaneous : Homonyms, etc. 149 

10 



PART I. 
THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLE 

To help develop "sentence sense." 

Some teachers prefer to begin with a review of the 
parts of speech and their simple nses. (See Ex. 4.) 

The purpose of this early work with phrase and 
clanse is merely to distinguish between the sentence 
and other word groups. 

Exercise 1 

WOED GROUPS 

A. The "Comma Sentence' ' Error 

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a 
complete thought. It makes an assertion. 

Complete sentences should be followed by the cor- 
rect end punctuation. They should not be run to- 
gether, separated only by commas. 

Correct. Incorrect. 

1. Give her the book. It's Give her the book, it's hers. 

hers. 

2. This may not be done. It's This may not be done, it's 

against the rules. against the rules. 

3. The teams were tied. Then The teams were tied, then the 

the whistle blew. whistle blew. 

4. For a while neither spoke. For a while neither spoke, 

Both were out of breath. both were out of breath. 

5. Do it now. Why do you Do it now, why do you wait? 

wait ? 

For further examples, see Ex. 40 and pupils' 
themes. 

11 



B. The Sentence and the Phrase 

A phrase is a group of words not making an asser- 
tion and used as a part of a sentence. 
I ran down the hill. Sentence. 

Running down the hill is The italicized expressions are 
fun. phrases. 

In the beginning God ere- To be a well-balanced stu- 

ated the heavens and the dent, one should take part in 
earth. school activities. 

Having provided ourselves 
with copies of the play, we 
began to practice. 

Which of the following expressions are phrases 
and which are sentences? In determining this be sure 
to consider separately each expression that is punc- 
tuated as a sentence. Sometimes reading it aloud will 
help you to determine whether it makes an assertion. 

1. A large swarm of hornets were emerging from their 
broken home. Making a noise like an aeroplane. 

2. Soon they arrived in town with the swarm behind. 
Passing the drug store, the grocery, and the hardware store 
like a flash. 

3. The boys ran away in a great hurry. The little fellows 
following them breathlessly. 

4. The dog entered the room and ran around excitedly. 
Up one aisle and down the other. 

(See further examples in Ex. 40.) 

C. The Sentence and the Clause 
A portion of a sentence that makes an assertion is 
called a clause. 

The part of the sentence that expresses the impor- 
tant thought is called the main or principal or inde- 
pendent clause. 

12 



A word group that lias a subject and predicate, and 
that does not express the main thought, is a sub- 
ordinate or dependent clause. 

Sometimes a sentence consists of two or more main 
clauses. (See Ex. 6.) If the clauses are closely con- 
nected, they are sometimes separated by a semicolon. 
If they have connectives, the latter are co-ordinating 
conjunctions. (See Ex. 46.) These are usually pre- 
ceded by commas. 

Mary sang and Gertrude played. 

The girls were bright, but the boys were brighter. 

Everyone trusts him, for he is always reliable. 

I'll catch that rascal, or I'll know the reason. 

Sometimes a subordinate clause is a part of a main 
clause. What we want is fair play. (See Ex. 11.) 

Study the following: 

I attended that game, which tvas the first ive ivon. (Sub- 
ordinate clause.) 

They stopped playing when the whistle Mew. (Subor- 
dinate clause.) 

The ponies ran, but the burros stood still. (Two main 
clauses.) 

I know what I want. (Subordinate clause used as part of 
main clause.) 

A subordinate clause is always introduced by some 
connecting word which makes it impossible for the 
clause to stand alone. 

Revise the Following: 

1. He then read a book with fine print. "Which was the 
worst thing he could have done for his eyes. 

2. The boys were far ahead. While the girls laughingly 
brought up the rear. 

13 



3. He never does as well as he can. Because he always 
gets behind at the beginning of the semester and never gets 
caught up. 

4. I have heard all about it. Although I was not there. 

5. The storm suddenly broke out in great fury. Just as 
we were getting ready to seek shelter. 

Which of the following groups of words are sen- 
tences ? 

(1) In the moon. (2) The moon is shining. (3) 
Having seen the moon. (4) From the moon. (5) See- 
ing the moon. (6) To the moon. (7) The moon comes 
at night. (8) The moon is sometimes round. (9) The 
roundness of the moon. (10) Much about the moon. 
(11) This is enough about the moon. 

Project 

During a class period or as an assignment examine 
in your themes all the groups of words that are punc- 
tuated as sentences. Make a list of those that have 
errors in structure. Correct them. Have a committee 
collect these from the class and make a report. 
As a class which error (comma sentence or detached 
phrase) do you make more frequently? 

Each week select one or more articles about half a 
column in length, from newspapers or discarded mag- 
azines. Select them for interest to you and value as 
constructive news. Prepare to read them to the class. 
Keep them in envelopes. As each point in grammar 
is illustrated by these exercises, add to them examples 
from your clippings. Underline the constructions 
under consideration. Go back over the old clippings 
for new points as they arise. 

Point out examples of phrases in your clippings. 

Write five phrases and use them in sentences. 



Detekminative and Descriptive Phkases and 
Clauses 

(Optional at this point. Given to draw attention of stu- 
dents from the beginning to the correct punctuation.) 

If phrases and clauses are closely connected with the words 
they modify so as to restrict or limit the meaning or to point 
out the object in contrast to others, they are not set off by 
commas. They are called determinative phrases and clauses. 
(G. N. Report.) (Commonly called restrictive.) (See Ex. 
3 and 13.) 

If they are loosely attached, parenthetical in form, and 
add to the thought by describing, they are set off by commas 
(one before and one after). They are called descriptive 
phrases and clauses. (G. N. Report.) (Commonly called 
non-restrictive. ) 

Note the clauses and their punctuation in the fol- 
lowing. Discuss them in class. Add other illustra- 
tions. 

1. That is the man whom I saw yesterday. 

2. He who would rule others must first rule himself. 

3. He that is unselfish has many friends. 

4. "We all admire a boy who will stand up for his prin- 
ciples. 

5. The point which I cannot understand is why the angles 
are equal. 

6. Give it to Marv, whom you will find at the end of the 
hall. 

7. Franklin, who was closely identified with Philadelphia, 
was born in Boston. 

8. We can trust those who have never been guilty of a 
shadow of deceit. 

9. The road which led to the left looked better than the 
other. 

10. The one who worked the hardest got the most out of 
the course. 

15 



11. Boys, who are sometimes more trying than girls, have 
their redeeming qualities. 

12. Ye who believe in affection, list to a tale of Acadie. 

13. The boy who made the touchdown injured his knee. 

14. Elizabeth, who was the brightest in the class, was very 
frail. 

15. His son, who was all that his father could wish, was a 
great comfort to him. 

FOR REVIEW 

In the following sentences point out the principal 
and subordinate clauses : 

(1) The day is bright when the heart is light. (2) The 
heart of lightness brings the day of brightness. (3) The heart 
that is light brings the day that is bright. (4) He who has 
a light heart sees that every day is bright. (5) The day is 
brightest when the heart is lightest. (6) In lightness of heart 
we find the brightness of day. (7) Brightness of day comes 
when lightness of heart comes. 

Exercise 2 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

Every sentence must have a subject and a predi- 
cate. The subject names that about which something 
is asserted. The predicate is the assertion that is 
made. The main word in the subject is a substantive 
(a noun or pronoun or group of words used as a noun). 
The predicate always contains a verb, which makes the 
assertion. This is sometimes a form of the verb "to be" 
(See Ex. 30) or a word used similarly, and sometimes 
a verb that expresses action or some other attribute. 

In finding the simple subject (subject substantive) 
and the simple predicate (predicate verb), it is well to 

16 



locate the verb first. (Ex. 30.) Then inquire who or 
what performed the action or about whom or what the 
assertion is made. 

The hunter killed a deer. Complete subject : The hunter. 

Complete predicate : killed a deer. 

Predicate verb : killed. 
Who or what killed ? Subject substantive : hunter. 

The first word in the sentence is not always the sub- 
ject. 

The word "it" is sometimes used impersonally as 
in "It is raining." It is called the subject. 

Sometimes "it" and "there" introduce the sentence, 
taking the place of some other expression in the sen- 
tence. They are then called expletives. 

There are fifty-two weeks in a year. 

It is a bad practice to borrow material. 

In the interrogative sentence the order is always 
inverted. 

Where are you going? = You are going where! 

In an imperative sentence the subject is always 
"you," understood. (See Ex. 5.) 

A sentence may have a compound subject or com- 
pound predicate or both. (See Ex. 6.) 

In the following point out the complete subject and 
complete predicate, and the predicate verb and sub- 
ject substantive. Underscore subject substantive once 
and predicate verb twice. 

1. A good student complies cheerfully with a request of 
his teacher. 

2. The elephant is the giant of the animal world. 

3. A merry heart doeth good like a medicine. 

17 



4. The dog saved the boy's life. 

5. High school pupils should be careful and accurate. 

6. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

7. Westward the course of empire takes its way. 

8. After the dance the rugs were put in place again. 

9. The book was read eagerly. 

10. It is time to go to luncheon. 

11. There have been five issues of Liberty Bonds. 

12. There was a big tree in the pasture. 

13. There is no use in whining about it. 

14. There followed a dispute as to who had thrown the 
ball. 

15. There was an accident at the corner. 

16. Where in the world is my book? 

17. Where are you going in such a hurry ? 

18. What do you want from me ? 

19. Do you ever hope to sing again? 

20. Are you not eager for school to begin ? 

21. Frank, please open the door. (See Ex. 4.) 

22. Look in both directions before you cross the street. 

23. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. 

24. Play the game squarely. 

25. Take heed that ye do not your alms before men to be 
seen of them. 

26. In the forests are many beautiful trees. 

27. It is a bad thing to procrastinate. 

28. Where are you going? 

29. How happy the children are ! (See Ex. 4.) 

30. There are twelve men on a jury. 

18 



31. Into the valley of death rode the Six Hundred. 

32. Did yon see the parade on Armistice Day? 

33. Are yon going to the class play? 

34. John, please close the window. 

35. Walter, the blacksmith, is a singer. 

36. When I saw him, I was mnch pleased. 

37. The ship was wrecked on the rocks. 

38. In writing a letter always do the best you can. 

39. What is your full name ? 

40. The capital of Illinois is Springfield, and the capital 
of the United States is Washington. 

41. Up the river a short distance is a sleepy little old town. 

42. The color of the books was green. 

43. The ship with its crew was sinking. 

44. The fleet of submarines was in the harbor. 

45. In what part of Europe have you traveled? 

46. I shall leave to-morrow. 

47. Elephants eat peanuts. 

48. It is healthful to eat apples. 

49. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

50. I should have been delighted to see you there. 

Pkoject 
Point out the simple subject and simple predicate 
in the shorter sentences from a clipping. Which do 
you find similar to the above in arrangement! Which 
seem to be the more common forms? 

REVIEW 

In the following point out both complete and simple 
subjects and predicates : 

19 



(1) Many books are written each year. (2) One of all 
your books is your favorite. (3) Too many books are worth- 
less. (4) Everywhere in the room were books. (5) To some 
people the writing of books is easy. (6) The price of books 
rises when paper is high. (7) Where are the favorite books 
of other days? (8) I shall read what books you like. (9) 
There is much information in books. (10) It is delightful to 
read some books. (11) From floor to ceiling were books. 

(12) Who would not havei been surprised at so many books? 

(13) It seemed to have rained books in that room. 

Exercise 3 
CLAUSES : PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE 

(Recommended for class discussion at this point.) 

A principal clause expresses the main thought of 
the sentence. Sometimes two or more principal 
clauses are joined in one sentence. The connection in 
thought must be very close or it would be better to 
make separate sentences. Such clauses are separated 
by semicolons or by co-ordinating conjunctions. The 
comma is not enough. (See "compound sentence" in 
Ex. 6.) 

A subordinate clause is a group of words with a 
subject and predicate used to take the place of a word 
such as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. 

A dependent clause is connected with the main 
clause by subordinating conjunctions (Ex. 46), or by 
relative connectives (relative pronouns, Ex. 23, and 
conjunctive adverbs, Ex. 42). 

Laugh and the world laughs with Two principal clauses. 
you) weep and you weep alone. 

Seek ye first the kingdom of heaven Two principal clauses, 
and all these things shall be 
added unto you. 

20 



The boy who has the black coat on Subordinate clause used 
is Frank. as an adjective. 

The clause == the black-coated 
boy. 

He went as soon as he, could. Subordinate clause used 

as an adverb. 

What we want is fair play. Subordinate clause used 

as a noun, subject of 
verb "is." 

Point out the clauses in the following and state if 
they are principal or subordinate : 

1. One of the chapters which I read told of the instincts 
of birds. 

2. When night came, we were all tired. 

3. The one who had accomplished the most bragged the 
least. 

4. The night has a thousand eyes and the day has but one. 

5. Come where the lilies bloom. 

6. He said that all was well. 

7. All is well and we shall go ahead. 

8. This happened when the storm was over. 

9. I told him what I knew about it. 

10. He who gives himself with his alms feeds three. 
For further examples, see Ex. 46 and 23. 
Co-ordinating conjunctions must not be confused 
with adverbs like then, therefore, however, etc. 
First we heard a loud crash; then came silence. 
The "then" may not be preceded by a comma. 

ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES 

Sometimes a portion of a clause is omitted but is under- 
stood. 

She is taller than I [am tall]. 

21 



ABSOLUTE PHRASE 

Some expressions are equivalent to clauses. They 
are not to be classified as clauses. These construc- 
tions have been called abridged clauses. Some of them 
are called absolute phrases. Note the following. (See 
further examples under Ex. 37.) 

We expected him to be ca- = We expected that he would be 

pable. capable. 

We wish her to return. = We wish that she may return. 

The bell having rung, we = As the bell had rung, we went 
went in. in. 

She being the leader, we = As she was the leader, we left 
left the plans to her. the plans to her. 

(See Ex. 37.) 

REVIEW 
In the following point out the principal clauses and 

the subordinate clauses : 

(1) English is the language that you speak. (2) The 
English that you speak should be plain. (3) English is good 
when you speak it correctly and plainly. (4) Consider the 
fact that you should write and speak good English. (5) Do 
you believe that the study of English is important? (6) Eng- 
lish is easier than Latin is. (7) Ask yourself if you are sure 
of your English. (8) English, which is the language of real 
Americans, is now a world language. 

Exekcise 4 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

A. The Parts 

1. A noun is a name. 

2. A pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

3. An adjective is a word used to describe or limit 
a noun or pronoun. 

22 



4. A verb is a word that asserts. 

5. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an 
adverb, or an adjective, or a modifier of one of these. 

6. A preposition is a word that shows the relation 
of a substantive to some other part of the sentence. 

7. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, or clauses. 

8. An interjection is a word that merely expresses 
strong feeling. 

Nouns and pronouns are called substantives. If 
some other part of speech is used as a noun it should 
be called a substantive. 

B. Their Use 
The parts of speech may be grouped as follows : 
Substantives : Connecting words : 

Nouns. Prepositions. 

Pronouns. Conjunctions. 

(Some kinds of pro- 
nouns and ad- 
verbs. ) 

Modifying Words : Independent Words : 

Adjectives. Interjections (no re- 

Adverbs, lation to other 

words in sen- 
tence). 

What parts of speech are the italicized words? 
Westminster Ab~bey is in London. 
She is a widow and that is her son. 
What do we not owe to our ancestors? 
Everyone should honor him who does his work well. 
The leaves of the tulip tree are large. 
23 



Rich is he who is content with his lot. 

Misery loves company. 

There is no room for drones in the hive. 

The machine went too slowly. 

The lecture was very interesting. 

I have good news for you. 

Some were in the wagon and some were under it. 

First the flash comes and then comes the report. 

Some books are 1 good, but many are harmful. 

Hurrah! it's snowing. 

Father, I hear the sound of guns ! 

"To" used with a substantive is a preposition, as 
in "to school," "to me." When used with a verb, as in 
"to study," it is not a preposition. It is called the sign 
of the infinitive. (See Ex. 37.) 

It cannot always be determined what part of speech 
a word is unless it is used in a sentence. Many words 
may be used as different parts of speech. 

Point out in the following the words or expressions 
that act as nouns: 

We love the red, white, and blue. 
We honor the great. 
None but the brave deserves the fair. 
Then isn't now. 

To prepare well is the best plan. 
Now is better. 

Its faded hangings had once been a deep rose. 
That he is a good man is doubted by no one. 
To swim is good exercise. 
Out of sight is out of mind. 
24 



Use the following as several different parts of 
speech : 

Good, fly, lead, time, mail, sound, fast, sail. 

Add others from your clippings or ones that you 
use or hear used. 

Some words are used incorrectly as other parts of 
speech : 

They were afraid that he would suspicion him. 
(Noun used for verb. Correct word is suspect.) 

I want to go some place. 

(Adjective and noun used for adverb. Correct word is 

somewhere.) 

Fish were plenty there. 

(Noun used for adjective. Correct word is plentiful.) 

The human is the only animal that stands erect. 

(Adjective used for noun. The word "being" should 
follow' human.) 

That was a good buy. 

(Verb used for noun. Correct word is purchase.) 

They formed a combine. 

(Verb used as noun. Correct word is combination.) 

For use of real for very, etc., see Ex. 41. 

EEVIEW 

In the following point out as many parts of speech 
as you can and tell why you believe each part of speech 
is what you have named it. Do the same for Ex. 2, 13, 
24, etc. 

(1) To him who knows animal and plant life the woods 
and fields will reveal many strange secrets. (2) To observe 
the bird building her nest, to see the squirrel hiding his winter 
store, to watch the spider patiently awaiting his prey, is to 
gain many a thought for our own life. (3) And thus think- 
ing leads to doing, and in time we find ourselves growing 



better because we have observed the ways of Nature. (4) 
John Burroughs, sitting quietly on a hillside and watching a 
redbreast in the brush, probably gained more thought for life 
than the banker in the city, counting men's money. (5) It 
has been truly said that love of Nature and loving observation 
of it, elevates the soul. (6) Oh, that all believed this ! 

Exercise 5 
THE KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO USE 

All sentences are either declarative or interrog- 
ative. A declarative sentence may express an entreaty 
or a command. 

All sentences are either exclamatory or non-exclam- 
atory. 

It is, however, useful to consider four kinds of 
sentences as to whether they (1) declare a fact, (2) ask 
a question, (3) express a command or entreaty, or 
(4) besides doing one of these, express deep emotion. 

Classify the following sentences and give reasons. 
Justify the punctuation. 

1. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

2. Please, sir, may we borrow your hammer? 

3. How beautiful the moon is to-night ! 

4. Advance, then, ye future generations ! 

5. May I give you a bit of my own experience ? 

6. Who would wish that his country's existence had 
otherwise begun? 

7. Last but not least, do not let other activities interfere 
with your school work. 

8. "Who would wish for an origin obscured in the dark- 
ness of antiquity? 

9. All that breathe will share thy destiny. 
10. Wave again the dear old banner. 

2G 



Pkoject 
Note the kind of sentence and punctuation for eacli 
in some page of a home-reading book. Discuss those 
which are hard to classify or as to the correct punc- 
tuation of which there may be a difference of opinion. 

REVIEW 

Explain to your classmates why the following sen- 
tences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or 
exclamatory : 

(1) To be strong does not necessarily mean to be noisy. 
(2) Have you not seen people who thought that if they simply 
made fuss and noise, they would impress others with the idea 
of strength and importance? (3) Oh, how silent the gen- 
uinely strong often are! (4) Napoleon was a very silent 
man; Washington said no more than was necessary; Lincoln 
was a quiet man. (5) Yet how strong they were! (6) Be 
quiet. (7) Be gentle. (8) Do your work steadily, but with- 
out undue show and display. (9) God does His daily work 
without blare of trumpets. (10) Do you hear the earth hurry 
about the sun, or the stars move in their courses? (11) Who 
can say that he has heard them in their might? (12) Would 
that man might learn from God and Nature the quietness of 
strength ! 

Exeecise 6 

THE KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO FORM 

Simple: With one subject and one predicate, either or 

both of which may be compound. 

Mary sang. Simple subject and simple 

predicate. 

Mary and John sang. Compound subject and sim- 

ple predicate. 

Mary played and sang. Simple subject and compound 

predicate. 

Mary and John played and Compound subject and com- 
sang. pound predicate. 

27 



Compound : With two or more separate statements. 

Mary played and John sang. 
(See Ex. 13 and 46.) 

Complex : A principal clause and at least one subordinate 
clause. 

Mary, who played, also sang. 

Compound-complex (for advanced work only) : Two or 
more principal clauses, one or more subordinate clauses. 

Mary, who played, also sang, and John was her accom- 
panist. 

Important! Distinguish between a simple sentence 
with a compound predicate, and a compound sentence. 

Mary finished her work and Simple sentence with corn- 
then read a good book. pound predicate. 

Mary finished her work and Compound sentence — two 
then she read a good book. complete statements. 

Friendship redoubleth joys; Simple sentence with com- 
but cutteth griefs in pound predicate, 

sunder. 

Find other illustrations in your clippings. 

Classify the following sentences as to form : 

1. A penny saved is a penny earned. 

2. A dark sky and a forbidding shore greeted the Pil- 
grims. 

3. Lochinvar seized the bride and dashed away. 

4. The lads and lassies danced and sang merrily. 

5. Stoop as you go through life, and you will avoid many 
hard knocks. 

6. Where there's a will, there's a way. 

7. Unto the pure all things are pure. 

8. The boy who was sick has come back to school. 

9. When she has finished her lessons, she may go skating. 
10. He who would rule others, must first rule himself. 

28 



Often sentences are strung along with "and's" or 
"so's," when it is better to make the clauses subordi- 
nate. 

The road was closed and we had to make a detour. 

Improved: As the road was closed, we had to make a 
detour. 

Revise the following sentences : 
I had a headache, so I didn't get up. 

My mother worries when I stay out late, so I always like 
to start home early. 

David is a very reliable boy, so we elected him president. 

Arthur won the fifty-yard dash and we congratulated him 
heartily. 

The storm came and the ship sank. 

Find other illustrations in your themes or in clip- 
pings. 

EEVIEW 

Tell whether the following sentences are simple, 
compound or complex. Point out all the clauses. 

(1) What is beauty? (2) It is not prettiness and it is 
not handsomeness. ' (3) If you put a large hat upon a very 
thin man, he does not look beautiful. (4) A very small hat 
on a large man seems ridiculous. (5) A porch with a heavy 
roof and columns as thin as pipe-stems certainly lacks dig- 
nity and makes you ill at ease. (6) Why? Because you 
feel that the poor columns are over-burdened and have not 
the proper freedom and dignity. (7) Beauty, then, is that 
freedom in anything for which you yourself are longing. 
(8) If you were longing for freedom from fleshiness, a thin 
person might seem beautiful to you; if you were longing for 
freedom from leanness, a portly person might seem beautiful 
to you. (9) Please remember, then, that beauty is not mere 
prettiness, but is a form of freedom. (10) Indeed, beauty and 
freedom are perhaps the same. 

29 



Exercise 7 
MODIFIERS 
Word : The sky is blue. 
Phrase : The nest in the tree has eggs in it- 
Clause : The boy who was hart went home. 
Kinds of Words : 



Noun and Pronoun : 
As adherent: 



As appositive : 



As possessive modifier : 



As indirect object : 

As adverbial modifier: 

Adjective. (See Ex. 28.) 
Adherent. 
Predicate. 
Appositive. 

Adverb. (See Ex. 41.) 

Kinds of Phrases: (See Ex. 9.) 

Prepositional. 

Participial. 

Infinitive. 

Gerund. 

Absolute. 
Kinds of Clauses: (See (Ex. 11.) 

Noun clause in apposition. 

Adjectival. 

Adverbial. 



The New York Times is a fa- 
mous newspaper. 

The merchant ship returned. 

Poe, the poet, was a skilful 
writer of tales. 

I mean Poe, him who wrote 
"The Gold Bug." 

A beaver's teeth are like 
chisels. 

We gave him a gift. 

I shall go to-morrow. 



30 



A noun clause in apposition must be distinguished 
from an adjective clause. 

John, who often came late, was a poor student. 

The clause is an adherent modifier of John. It is 
not in apposition. 

The saying, "What cannot be cured must be endured" is 
a true one. 

The clause is in apposition. (See Ex. 11.) 

Point out examples of all of the above in your clip- 
pings. 

In Exercise 2 we saw that the skeleton of a sen- 
tence consists of the simple subject (subject substan- 
tive) and the simple predicate (predicate verb). All 
the words or expressions that limit each of these are 
modifiers. 

All words, phrases, or clauses that modify the sim- 
ple subject are like adjectives, which modify substan- 
tives. They are called adjectival modifiers. Each 
adjectival phrase or clause has grammatically the 
value of a single word. 

All words or word groups that modify the simple 
predicate are called adverbial modifiers. Such word 
groups have grammatically the value of a single word. 

In the following pick out the words or expressions 
that modify the subject substantive and the predicate 
verb. 

1. The fast train was wrecked on the bridge. 

2. There was great excitement on the day of the big game. 

3. Everyone was happy and everyone was sure his school 
would win. 

4. By skilful passing and good teamwork, the Blues got 
the first shot at the basket. 

31 



5. The third quarter opened amid cheers from all sides. 

6. When the quarter ended, the score stood nothing to 
nothing. 

7. The train was loaded with about fifty girls with bright 
faces, looking forward to the joys of a summer camp. 

8. At her side sat Faith, a calm, quiet, reserved girl, who 
tried to sympathize with her. 

9. The second day Dotty was miserable, very, very miser- 
able. 

10. And Gareth bow'd himself with all obedience to the 
King, and wrought all kind of service with a noble ease that 
graced the lowliest act in doing it. 

In determining what an expression modifies, repeat 
it with each word nntil yon reach the one with w 7 hich 
it belongs. 

A word or group of words used next to a w T ord and 
denoting the same person or thing is called an apposi- 
tive. An appositive differs from a predicate nomi- 
native in that it follows immediately the word it modi- 
fies, while in the case of a predicate nominative the 
verb comes between the subject and the complement. 

Usually the appositive with its modifiers is set off from 
the rest of the sentence by commas. 

In titles, etc., where the connection is very close, the com- 
mas are omitted. In some cases the expression is a part of 
the proper noun. 

(Adjectives and clauses may also be used in an appositive 
relation.) 

A noun in apposition is in the same case as the noun 
with which it is in apposition. 

1. It was Alfred the Great who said, "So long as I have 
lived, I have striven to live worthily." 

2. His son John went to Harvard. 

32 



3. Jackson, the short stop, was injured. 

4. He himself signed the papers. 

5. John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians, translated the 
Bible into the Indian language. 

6. Hector was a son of King Priam. 

7. Hector was a son of the king, Priam. 

8. Morrison, our best player, is never ineligible. 

9. She loved the works of Whitman, the Good Gray Poet. 

10. The trophy was handed to Smith, the captain of the 
team. 

Exekcise 8 
COMPLEMENTS 
An expression that is used with the verb to com- 
plete the meaning is called a complement. 

Complements include (1) direct objects, (2) predi- 
cate nominatives, and (3) predicate adjectives. 
(See Ex. 30.) 

1. Sometimes a verb which expresses action is 
accompanied by a noun or pronoun which names that 
which received the action. This substantive is called 
the direct object. 

2. The forms of the verb "to be" (see Ex. 30) and 
a small number of other verbs do not take an object. 
When a noun or pronoun completes the verb, it always 
means the same person or thing as the subject. It is 
called a predicate nominative (predicate complement). 
If the verb is completed by an adjective, the latter is 
called a predicate adjective (predicate attribute). 

3. Sometimes the predicate contains a complement 
that denotes the effect of action on the direct object. 
This is called an objective complement. Examples : 
They named him John. They painted the barn red. 

33 



Complements are often out of the regular order, 
especially in poetry. 

Point out the complements in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. His brother is a physician. 

2. Dr. Brown, the minister of our church, gave an excel- 
lent address. 

3. "I was a Viking bold," said the Skeleton in Armor. 

4. "Slim" Saunders was short in height but long in 
weight. 

5. They called their dog Sport. 

6. John Burroughs' description of April is beautiful. 

7. Rich is he who is satisfied with his lot. 

8. The horse was named Peggy. 

9. The clouds were fluffy masses of vapor. 

10. She will sing you a song. 

11. The children made the candy. 

12. Man am I grown; a man's work must 1 do. 

13. Only one proof, before thou ask the king to make thee 
knight, of thine obedience and thy love to me, thy mother, I 
demand. 

14. The teacher is at the same time, umpire, counsellor, 
and guide. 

REVIEW 

In the following point out all the modifiers. Tell 
why they are adjectives or adverbs. Point out all the 
complements. Explain their construction. 

(1) Swiftly the water moves through hills and valleys. 
(2) It is never without motion. (3) Made a captive in pond 
or lake or sea, even then it is not motionless. (4) With rest- 
less ripples and waves it seeks to move on, and if an outlet 
is denied, it silently escapes as invisible vapor into the air. 

34 



(5) Even then it is forever in motion. (6) Into fleecy clouds 
it forms ; from the clouds it descends in tiny raindrops ; into 
the streams it pours to resume its tireless motion. (7) The 
lesson for us is very clear. (8) Only the idle, the motionless, 
dies. (9) In activity alone is life. (10) The unmoving 
things stagnate; utterly to cease activity, to be idle, to be 
useless, means indeed self-extinction. (11) He may truly 
call himself master of fate who lives fully. 

Exercise 9 

PHRASES AS TO FORM 

Like sentences, phrases are classified as to form 
and use. As to form, they are usually named after 
the characteristic word. 

Verb phrase (a group of He is running fast, 
words that asserts). (See Ex. 31.) 

Prepositional. He went to school. 

Infinitive. I like to work problems. 

(See Ex. 37.) 

Participial. Tampering with the ma- 

chinery, he ruined his 
car. (See Ex. 37.) 

Point out the verb phrases in Ex. 39. 

Do not confuse "to" followed by a substantive, 
which is a preposition, with "to" followed by a verb, 
which forms an infinitive. 

Classify the phrases in the following as to form : 

1. At length came the appointed time, bringing with it 
unusual severity of cold and rain. 

2. The trees on top of the mountain are stunted in 
growth. 

35 



3. The best time to see birds is in the morning and in the 
evening. 

4. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great 
task remaining before us. 

5. There is no room for drones in the hives. 

6. She liked to run on errands. 

7. No man liveth unto himself alone. 

8. Worn out and hungry, she sank on the door-step, sob- 
bing bitterly. 

9. She lived in the shadow of the skyscrapers. 

10. Our students' council has helped to solve some prob- 
lems. 

11. A moment later, hastening her steps to catch the train, 
Marie followed. 

12. There was a new clerk in the office. 

13. She wants to take it to the neighbors. 

14. He fell out of the frying-pan into the fire. 

15. Making the most of her opportunity, she began breath- 
lessly. 

16. Determined to oppose him, she laid her plans carefully. 

17. Down the long beam stole the Holy Grail all covered 
with a luminous cloud. 

18. The troops are going by. 

19. Mounting our horses, we proceeded up the mountain 
road. 

20. My knights are sworn to vows of utter hardihood, 
utter gentleness, and loving, utter faithfulness in love, and 
uttermost obedience to the king. 

REVIEW 

Copy in separate lists all the verb, prepositional, 
infinitive, and participial phrases in the following : 

36 



(1) There is — or should be — in your life and mine some 
one main purpose or goal toward which all activities may 
center. (2) This is your life ideal. (3) Without it are you 
not simply drifting? (4) Like a leaf thrown upon a stream, 
you will he hurled hither and thither, if you have not this one 
guiding ideal. (5) With it, in spite of all obstacles and 
obstructions, you can go more directly toward success. (6) 
Now and then adversities may turn you somewhat from your 
path, but the ideal of your life will bring you back into the 
way. (7) To have an abiding purpose is to have a strong 
will; a strong will masters life. (8) Make your life success- 
ful ; make your existence one of victory. 

Exercise 10 
PHEASES AS TO USE 
Prepositional phrases usually are used either as 
adjectives or as adverbs. 

Participial phrases are always used as adjectives. 

Infinitive phrases are usually used as nouns, but 
they may have other uses. 

Point out the phrases, as to use, in the following: 

1. The plant in the window is thriving. 

2. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

3. It was an interesting account of an experience in 
blackberrying. 

4. The top of the mountain is covered with snow. 

5. The owner of the car was the boy. 

6. Grenfell was adrift on a mass of floating ice. 

7. The ball went over the fence. 

8. We gathered the apples under the tree. 

9. Mary Antin came to the Promised Land. 

10. We had a most original program on Pep Day. 

11. To be a genius is to have a capacity for hard work. 

37 



12. In the midst of this, our mortal life, I found me in a 
gloomy wood, astray. 

13. We do our best work in the morning. 

14. The dog crept under the table. 

15. He did it for effect. 

16. They came in laughingly, bringing the culprit with 
them. 

17. Her hobby is to crochet. 

18. He did well in the beginning but not at the close. 

19. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. 

20. A stitch in time saves nine. 

21. The girl sat in a big arm chair before the cheerful log 
fire that burned in the grate. 

22. His ambition is to ride well. 

23. Searching through the house, he found a candle. 

24. Thoreau lived at Walden Pond. 

25. During the life of the dog, Scotch, on Long's Peak, he 
was once sent by Enos Mills to guide a girl on her trip up the 
mountains. 

Point out all the phrases in Ex. 2, 9, and 13. 

Exercise 11 
CLAUSES AS TO USE 
As to form, clauses are principal or subordinate. 
(See Ex. 3.) 

Principal clauses may be co-ordinate. 

Subordinate clauses, also, may be co-ordinate. 

The moon waxes and then it Co-ordinate principal 
wanes. clauses. 

He told Mm where he must Co-ordinate subordinate 
go and what he must do. clauses. 



Subordinate Clauses as to Use. 

As Sub- As subject That I should go was certain, 

stantive. of verb. Whatever is important must be 

emphasized. 
With a It depended on what he knew. 

preposition. He came prepared with what he 
! needed. 

As predicate This was what I told him. 
nominative. Freedom was what he wanted. 

As object He read what he liked. 

of verb. "What do you wantf" he asked. 

In apposition. He repeated the question, "Where 
are you going f 

As Adjective. Determinative (restrictive or necessary). 
(See Ex. 1.) Descriptive (non-restrictive or forward- 
moving) . 

Adverbial. Modifying verbs. He went where there 

was good fishing. 

Modifying adjectives. He was as tidy as one 
can be. 

Modifying adverbs. He ran as swiftly as the 

car went. 

Avoid the use of a "when" or "where" clause as a 
predicate nominative clause. 

Correct the following: 

1. A volcano is where lava and steam come out of the 
earth. 

2. A "comma sentence" error is where two complete 
sentences are separated by a comma. 

Introductory subordinate clauses are usually fol- 
lowed by commas : 

1. When we had nearly finished eating, a shower came up. 

2. Just as we started to eat, the old man came out of the 
house. 

39 



Do not put a comma between a verb and an object 
clause that follows it, unless there is a parenthetical 
expression between. 

Example : He did not see what was in the window. 
He did not see, in his hurry, what was in the window. 

How are the clauses used in the following sen- 
tences ? 

1. That I should go was certain. 

2. What he asked was this. 

3. Whosoever will, may come. 

4. He showed his brother how he could solve the 
problem. 

5. I do not know where John had gone. 

6. He gave his attention to what was most necessary. 

7. It was now nine o'clock and nothing had happened 
except that the crowd had gathered. 

8. He sold it for whatever he could get for it. 

9. He was depending on what he had learned earlier. 

10. There is no question about what that means. 

11. It is whatever you say it is. 

12. He knew that his work wasn't what it had been at first. 

13. This is what I want. 

14. He became what he expected to become. 

15. Life is what we make of it. 

16. What I undertake I accomplish. 

17. I know what I want. 

18. That he was mistaken I soon learned. 

19. He wondered what they were going to do to him. 

20. Do you know where he lives ? 

21. What I have and what I want are two different things. 

40 



22. While the audience was gathering, the orchestra 
played. 

23. Thanks be to God, that this spot was honored as the 
asylum of religious liberty. 

24. Where there is so much smoke there must be some fire. 

25. We shall be glad to do what you wish. 

26. Frank was told to find a candle which was somewhere 
in the house. 

27. The laughter and whispering had an effect on him 
which nothing else would have produced. 

28. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 

29. All that glitters is not gold. 

30. He who eats his cake cannot keep it. 

31. Frank sat thinking until he became drowsy. 

32. Whither thou goest, I will go. 

33. As soon as he had played the last act, the audience 
stood. 

34. If you wish to succeed, you must do well from the 
beginning. 

35. When the boys came to a halt, the one with the bugle 
stepped forward. 

36. When you say you "get even" with a person, you do 
exactly that thing : you lower yourself to his level. 

37. "Well," he exclaimed, "I can try!" 

38. What Burroughs tells in the story entitled "The 
Marsh Hawk," could all be true. 

39. Enos Mills tells how the return horses are trained and 
what good care they are given. 

40. "My country, 'tis of thee," sang the great chorus. 

REVIEW 

Point out all the clauses in the following. Under- 
line them and label them as to use. 

41 



(1) You sometimes wonder why you go to school. (2) It 
is right that you should ask this. (3) For whatever is not 
useful is certainly wasteful. (4) You go in order that you 
may develop whatever ability you may possess. (5) That 
your muscles may grow, you take exercise. (6) That your 
body may develop, you eat food. (7) You play when the body 
demands recreation. (8) Education does for the mind what 
these things do for the body. ( 9 ) That the mind may be exer- 
cised is the purpose of certain studies. (10) The object of 
other studies is that the brain may have food for thought. 
(11) You are supplied with mental recreations to be used 
when your mind is weary of toil. (12) True education makes 
a man what he was intended to be. (13) Through education 
you draw forth what is in you. (14) He who is educated 
knows his resources and is master of them. 



Exercise 12 

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

Some words have no grammatical relation to any 
other word in the sentence. They are called indepen- 
dent elements. 

Interjections and Oh, see that accident ! 

Exclamations. Rob, what shall we do? 

Human Nature ! how r univer- 
sal thou art ! 

Vocatives Bichard, please come here, 

(words independent Please, sir, may we go? 
by address). 

Pleonasm. This constant buzzing, what 

does it mean? 

Parenthetical To-morrow, not Wednesday, is 

Elements. (These the day of the festival. 



may be words, 
phrases, or clauses.) 



42 



The interjection is always capitalized. It is 
usually followed directly by a substantive without a 
comma. 

"Oh" is not always capitalized. It is sometimes fol- 
lowed by a comma. 

Pleonasm is not permissible in ordinary usage. 
Correct : The girl went home. Incorrect : The girl she 
went home. 

Parenthetical expressions are always set off by 
commas, one preceding and one following. 

Point out the independent elements in the follow- 
ing: 

1. death, where is thy sting? grave, where is thy 
victory ? 

2. My dear, what in the world are you doing? 

3. morning star that smilest in the blue, 

star, my morning dream hath proven true, 
Smile sweetly, thou ! my love hath smiled on me. 

4. Boys, let's play ball. 

5. Stars, hide your fires. 

6. Build thee more stately mansions, my soul. 

7. Captain! my Captain! 

8. Mortals, that would follow me, love Virtue; she alone 
is free. 

9. Gentlemen, let us look into this matter. 

10. Sing, Heavenly Muse, of man's first disobedience. 

11. Thou, too, sail on, Ship of State ! 

REVIEW 

In the following sentences, point out the indepen- 
dent elements and state what kind each is. 

43 



(1) Oh, that men would listen to the teaching of Nature! 
(2) "Children," she seems to say, "why will you, the highest 
earthly beings, why will you be blind and deaf? (3) My 
lessons, my daily manifestations, what they might tell you 
if you would but see and hear ! (4) The trees, symbols of my 
calm strength, call to you to reach toward the heights. (5) 
The streams (and what happy voices they have!) declare to 
you that only in activity is happiness. (6) The flowers, those 
messengers of love, whisper that even out of the dirt of life 
can spring beauty. (7) Truly, men, I speak to you daily. 
(8) My words and my acts, they would teach you the way, if 
you, the blind and the deaf, would but see and hear." 

Exercise 13 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
In the following sentences give 

(a) Kind of sentence as to meaning and form. 

(b) Complete subject and complete predicate. 

(c) Simple subject and simple predicate in main and 

subordinate clauses. 

(d) All the complements and their construction. 

(e) All the modifiers, the kind they are, and what they 

modify. 

1. Did you study very much? 

2. How is history going with you, George ? 

3. Where is yesterday's paper? 

4. Time and tide wait for no man. 

5. He set down his grip and walked into the kitchen. 

6. Luella swung back and forth in the hammock on her 
wide, shady porch. 

7. His success on the court much lessened his disappoint- 
ment of the morning. 

8. He should have been in the great out-of-doors, working 
on his father's farm. 

44 



9. Down by the river there is a fine shady place for 
fishing. 

10. In a moment the building fell with a crash. 

1. John tried to keep up, but it was impossible. 

2. It was a scorching hot day, and Dick was lounging in 
the shade. 

3. At first no one saw him, and then his mother turned 
around. 

4. Some books are good, but many are worthless. 

5. Up went the balloon, and the people shouted. 

6. We chose Fred, for he was always considering the 
good of the whole group. 

7. Rose usually studied her lessons thoroughly, but to- 
night she felt rather tired and disgusted with herself. 

8. At that time she was only seven years old, but the pic- 
ture of that awful night was still vivid in her mind. 

10. A thought is composed of ideas, but a sentence is com- 
posed of words. 

1. As she leaned forward, her face showed signs of a 
struggle. 

2. She could not forget how her mother had sacrificed for 
her. 

3. As the girls turned the corner, they met the captain 
of the rival basketball team. 

4. He thinks that high school students can usually be 
trusted. 

5. What they read was so astonishing that they read it 
again. 

6. The family started for the hill on which the people 
were accustomed to assemble at flood times. 

7. "The old bridge won't stand this," said Jim's father. 

8. When the late afternoon began to get a little cooler, 
she wandered up into the attic. 

45 



9. He told his son, who was now grown, who he was. 
10. "Why did it have to come to this?" he thought. 

1. My, that clover smells sweet ! 

2. When one came in, the other went out. 

3. He afterward said that he had never realized how 
much the old home meant to him until then. 

4. Jim's father said that he had just been needing a man 
to help him plow. 

5. I had barely walked a block, when, looking over my 
shoulder, I noticed that the little girl had followed me. 

6. The next morning Jim and his little brother, George, 
went down to the river with their bamboo poles, to go fishing. 

7. For a minute Jim was so surprised that he just stood 
there, and then he started to run. 

8. This was not the first time that there had been a flood, 
and the people knew what it meant. 

9. Jim wrote back and said that the old farm was good 
enough for him. 

10. Before him lay the gray Azores. 

11. Down went the poor little wounded bird. 

12. Speech is silver but silence is golden. 

13. Experience is a dear teacher, but fools will learn from 
no other. 

14. Character is what we are; reputation is what people 
think we are. 

15. Let me live in a house by the side of the road and be 
a friend to man. 

16. If 3^e break faith with us who die, we shall not sleep, 
though poppies grow in Flanders fields. 

46 



EXEECISE 14 

KINDS OF NOUNS 

Nouns are words which are used to name anything 
that may be made an object of thought. 

Nouns are either (a) proper or (b) common, accord- 
ing to whether the name designates a member of a 
class or a particular individual or unit. 

Abstract Nouns. 

These are nouns that name qualities or mental concepts. 
They may be : 

(1) Derived from nouns: motherhood, cowardice. 

(2) Derived from verbs: pleasure, occupation. 

(3) Derived from adjectives: whiteness, dullness, 

solemnity. 

(4) Independent concepts : time, space, faith, hope. 

Verbal Nouns. 
These include : 

(1) The infinitive of a verb, as, "to run." 

(2) The gerund (infinitive ending in "ing," as, 

"running." 

They are used as nouns, but are derived from verbs. 

They differ from nouns in that they may take objects 
and verbal modifiers as verbs do. (See Ex. 37.) 

Another kind of noun, which may be either common 
or proper, is a collective noun. (See Ex. 15.) 

Various parts of speech may be used as nouns. 
They are then called substantives and are said to be 
used substantively. (See Ex. 4.) 

Proper nouns are generally capitalized. Usage 
with regard to capitalizing nouns is not always uni- 
form, but certain rules must be observed always. 



Some of the most important rules of capitalization 
are indicated in the following. Master the ones your 
teacher selects as most important at this point. 

Words which should be capitalized include the fol- 
lowing : 

1. Names of persons and of particular places. 

2. Days of the week, the months, and special holi- 
days, but not seasons. 

3. Names of great events in history or historical 
epochs. 

4. Names of streets and avenues. 

5. Titles of books, articles, themes, etc. 

6. Names of the Deity and special holy things. 

7. Names of sections of a country, but not points 
of the compass. 

8. Names of races of people and languages, and 
school subjects naming languages, but not other school 
subjects. 

Add other reasons for capitalizing nouns that you 
can support by illustrations. 

The Formation of Nouns 

New nouns and new variations of almost every part 
of speech have frequently been formed from older 
words, by the following methods: 

1. Inflection. Example: man, men. 

2. Derivation. Example : invent, invention. 
The original word is called the root word. 

3. Composition. 

48 



Sometimes two or three words are combined. In 
some cases a hyphen is used. Sometimes the hyphen 
is dropped and the word is written as one. 

Examples: semi-circle, moonlight. 

It is not a good plan for untrained writers to coin 
words. 

Make from your clippings a list of compound words 
that retain the hyphen and ones that do not. In case 
of doubt, always consult a dictionary. 

Make a list of newly-coined words. See if they are 
given in a dictionary. 

Look up the following to see whether the hyphen 
should be used or the two parts written as one word. 
Add other doubtful words to the list : 

To day, my self, to gether, semi colon, to morrow, a sleep, 
text book, black berry, school room, proof reader, any one, 
every one, some one, any body, school mate, school children, 
to night, with out, twenty five, Anglo Saxon, base ball, lead 
pencil, all right. 

(See also Ex. 28.) 

Discuss the following in class. Use illustrations 
from your clippings to support your reason for con- 
sidering a word a proper noun. 

1. President Harding went to Plymouth, Massachusetts, 
on the presidential yacht, the Mayflower. 

2. We gave Principal Johnson three cheers. 

3. Emerson's essay, "The American Scholar," has been 
called the declaration of independence of American literature. 

4. Warren G. Harding is the President of the United 
States. 

5. Jefferson wrote The Declaration of Independence. 

6. England and France are two of the greatest nations in 
Europe. 

49 



7. There are four Arnolds and two Margarets in the class. 

8. Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the United 
States. 

9. There are twenty-three principals of Chicago high 
schools. 

10. The Lane Technical High School is on the North Side. 

11. Halsted Street is one of the longest streets in Chicago. 

12. A poem about the Chicago River was written by a 
Chicago man. 

13. I shall not go if my mother disapproves. 

14. When I arrived at home, Mother and Sister were wait- 
ing for me. 

15. Every schoolboy should be familiar with the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. 

16. And now abideth Faith, Hope, and Love ; but the great- 
est of these is Love. 

17. The child often dreamed about Indians, fairies, and 
gypsies. 

18. The White House is the home of the President. 

19. I like "A Sailor's Log" by Admiral Robley D. Evans, 
who was called "Fighting Bob." 

20. I shall go Wednesday, the third of August. 

21. In the first year we studied English, algebra, physiol- 
ogy, and French. 

22. She had two years of work in the Hyde Park High 
School. 

23. The months of spring are March, April, and May. 

24. I asked Mother if I might go with Aunt Edith and my 
cousins. 

25. The Holy Grail was the cup out of which it is said that 
Christ drank at the Last Supper. 

50 



26. We visited Independence Hall in Philadelphia, where 
we saw the Liberty Bell, and the place where the Declaration 
of Independence was signed. 

27. Mr. Clark, who came from the East, is a wealthy man 
and a political power in our western state, Montana. 

28. The legal holidays in my state are , 

, , and 



29. The months of winter are December, January, and 
February. 

Correct errors in the following sentences by sup- 
plying the omitted capitals. Give reasons. 

1. George Eliot was the writer of "silas marner." 

2. The jew, Isaac, and the christian abbot, prior aymer, 
are interesting characters to compare. 

3. The indians were the original americans. 

4. We went to new york city on the new york central 
railroad, stayed at the metropolitan hotel, took a trip up the 
hudson river to irving's home, sunnyside, visited the latin 
department at Columbia university, and saw drinkwater's 
"Abraham Lincoln" at the cort theatre. 

5. He gave to misery all he had, a tear. 

6. Puck said, "lord, what fools these mortals be." 

7. Sir Launfal was a knight, who went in search of the 
holy grail. 

8. I asked aunt mary if I might go. 

9. Have you ever seen a picture of the coliseum at rome ? 

10. Every person should see the grand canyon of the 
Colorado river in arizona before he dies. 

11. Paris, the largest of the french cities, is the capital of 
france. 

12. There stood my mother with uncle henry and aunt 
marion. 

51 



13. Long's peak, the highest mountain in the rocky moun- 
tain national park, near denver, always has snow on the sum- 
mit. 

14. The required subjects in her course were mathematics, 
science, french, and english. 

15. The east and the south have joined on the issue. 

16. Thou shalt love the lord thy god with all thy strength 
and thy neighbor as thyself. 

17. The bible is the greatest work of literature. 

18. Denver is almost directly west of Chicago. 

19. During our week in and near boston, we visited Plym- 
outh rock, the statue of the minute man at concord bridge, 
walden pond, where Thoreau had built his hut, the witch 
house at salem, and Washington's elm in Cambridge. 

20. We saw the statue, the end of the trail, at the panama 
exposition in san francisco. 

Exercise 15 

KINDS OF NOUNS (Continued): COLLECTIVE 

NOUNS 

The name of a number of individuals considered as 
a group is known as a collective noun. 

When we consider the group as a unit, it is used 
as a singular noun. When we are thinking of the indi- 
viduals in the group, we regard it as plural. 

Study and discuss the following examples : 

1. The football team have new suits. 

2. The committee made its report. 

3. The Senate agreed on its program. 

4. The class expressed their opinions freely. 

5. The jury will be kept together until they agree. 

52 



6. If the audience are pleased, they should applaud. 

7. The navy was in the best condition possible. 

8. The team did their best to keep eligible. 

9. That pair of shoes is too large. 

10. The crew were staying with various friends. 

Make a list of about twenty collective nouns in com- 
mon usage. Use them in sentences, so as to show 
whether they are used as singular or plural nouns. 
Study the usage in your clippings. Have a member of 
the class make this a subject for study and give a 
report covering all your material. 

(See Ex. 32 for further illustrations.) 

Exercise 16 

GENDEE IN NOUNS 

(Optional; for Eeference Chiefly) 

A small number of English nouns are inflected for 
gender. 

Usually only nouns denoting persons or animals 
have gender. Some personified objects, such as ship, 
sun, moon, night, spring, etc., are sometimes given 
gender, especially when used poetically. 

Three of the common ways of denoting gender are as 
follows : 

(1) By using an entirely different form. 

(2) By adding suffixes (usually -ess or -ine) to the mas- 
culine form. 

(3) By attaching some prefix to the original noun. 

Add to the list other nouns inflected for gender that occur 
in ordinary use. 

53 



1. Masculine. 


Feminine. 


2. Masculine 


Feminine. 


man 


woman 


actor 


actress 


father 


mother 


patron 


patroness 


nephew 


niece 


heir 


heiress 


uncle 


aunt 


sorcerer 


sorceress 


master 


mistress 


waiter 


waitress 


(Mr.) 


(Mrs.) 


host 


hostess 


sir 


madam 


benefactor 


benefactress 


wizard 


witch 


giant 


giantess 


king 


queen 


god 


goddess 


buck 


doe 


duke 


duchess 


ram 


ewe 






stag 


hind 







Masculine. Feminine, 

he-bear she-bear 

man-servant maid-servant 
cock-sparrow hen-sparrow 
he-goat she-goat 



4. Masculine. 

(Miscellaneous.) 
messieurs 
czar 
sultan 

administrator 
executor 
alumnus 
merman 



Feminine. 

mesdames 

czarina 

sultana 

administratrix 

executrix 

alumna 

mermaid 



There is now a tendency not to inflect such nouns as 
author and poet for gender. Note this tendency in current 
literature. 



Many proper given names are inflected for gender, 
if you can add to the following: 



See 



Julius, Julia. 
Francis, Frances. 
Cornelius, Cornelia. 
Henry, Henrietta. 



Joseph, Josephine. 
Paul, Pauline. 
Augustus, Augusta. 



54 



Exercise 17 
NUMBEE IN NOUNS 
Ordinary Plurals 
The lists of plurals are given for reference. 

1. The usual way of forming the plural of nouns is 
by adding "s" to the singular form. 

(a) boys, cows, feathers, chairs, shows, hats, shores, tables, 
doves, fields, flowers, windows. 

The tendency to be careless in this simple matter 
and to make the ignorant error of adding "es" to many 
such words is unfortunately growing. 

Correct: shows. Incorrect: showes. 

A worse error is to add an apostrophe and "s" to 
an ordinary noun to make it plural. 

Look over your themes. If you discover such 
errors, work on this point. Select ordinary plurals 
from your clippings. 

(b) If the word ends in silent "e" preceded by a hissing 
sound, or by the letter "g," another syllable is added when 
the "s" is added: 

horse, horses. size, sizes, 

house, houses. phrase, phrases, 

fence, fences. bridge, bridges, 

vase, vases. cage, cages. 

2. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch (as in church), x, and 
z form their plurals by adding "es" to the singular 
form. 

(a) This adds a new syllable, as in gas-es, circus-es, 
glass-es, wish-es, dish-es, bush-es, bench-es, church-es, witch-es, 
box-es, miss-es. 

(b) The "es" is added to some nouns without forming a 
new syllable, as in heroes, potatoes, tomatoes; also in certain 

55 



words in which the singular is slightly changed in forming 
the plural, as in wolves, halves, pennies, fairies. (See below, 
3 and 4.) 

3. (a) Some nouns ending in "f" or "fe" change the 
/ to v before adding "es," as in beef, beeves. 

Pluralize the following and use them in sentences : 
calf leaf self wharf 

elf life sheaf wolf 

half loaf thief 

knife shelf wife 

(b) Other nouns ending in "f" form the plural in 
the regular way : 

belief cliff gulf roof 

chief flag-staff handkerchief waif 

cuff grief reef 

Look up the following : dwarf, hoof, scarf. 

4. (a) Nouns ending in "y" preceded by a conso- 
nant, or by "qu," form the plural by changing the "y" 
of the singular form to "ie" and adding "s." 

(b) Nouns ending in "y" preceded by a vowel form 
the plural in the regular way. 

Write the plural of the following and use them in 
sentences. State the rule each time until you have 
mastered it and can apply it. 



academy 


city 


fairy 


mystery 


actuary 


colloquy 


family 


penny 


ally 


copy 


ferry 


pony 


army 


country 


fly 


puppy 


baby 


cry 


gypsy 


soliloquy 


berry 


daisy 


glory 


story 


body 


ditty 


history 


tally 


caddy 


doily 


lily 




cherry 


enemy 


mercy 





56 



abbey chimney journey pulley 

alley day key turkey 

attorney donkey money valley 

buoy jockey monkey volley 

5. Some nouns ending in "o" add "es" and some 
add only "s" to form the plural. If "o" is preceded 
by a vowel, add "s." Words from the Italian arts and 
terms in bookbinding add "s." 

The older English forms usually add "es"; those more 
recently taken into the language add only "s." 

The following add "es" : 



buffalo 

calico 

cargo 

domino 

echo 



grotto 

hero 

mosquito 

motto 

mulatto 



negro 

portico 

potato 

tomato 

tornado 



torpedo 

veto 

volcano 



piano 
quarto 
ratio 
solo 



soprano 
stiletto 
trio 
zero 



The following add only 
albino halo 

bamboo lasso 

cameo memento 

canto octavo 

folio 

Prepare spelling lessons based on the above. 
See if you can add others to these lists. 
Use the words in sentences. 

Exercise 18 
NUMBER IN NOUNS (Continued) 
Irregular Forms 
6. Some nouns form their plural by a change of 
vowel, as in man, men ; woman, women. 

Write the plural of foot, goose, tooth, and mouse in 
sentences. 



57 



7. A few nouns form the plural by the old ending 
"en." Examples: ox, oxen; child, children; brother, 
brethren; cow, kine. 

8. The following nouns have the same form in the 
singular and the plural: deer, sheep, swine, fish. 

9. Some nouns have two plurals with slightly dif- 
ferent meanings. Look them up in the dictionary. 

brother, brothers, brethren. genius, geniuses, genii, 

cloth, cloths, clothes. index, indexes, indices, 

die, dies, dice. shot, shots, shot. 

fish, fishes, fish. penny, pennies, pence. 

10. Some nouns are either always plural or always 
singular : 

alms, ashes, dregs, eaves, gallows, pincers, riches, scissors, 
shears, suds, tongs, trousers, news (formerly considered plural, 
as in Shakespeare), physics, mathematics, measles, mumps. 

Look up "athletics." Is the usage uniform? 

11. Compound nouns usually pluralize the more im- 
portant part of the word: 

attorney-at-law, attorneys-at-law. 

blackbird, blackbirds. 

Use the plural of the following in sentences. Look 
up those you are not sure of: 

blackberry, Brahman, brother-in-law, bill-of-fare, commander- 
in-chief, court-martial, court-yard, cupful, Englishman, father- 
in-law, fisherman, goose-quill, Frenchman, handful, hanger-on, 
knight-errant, knight-templar, lieutenant-general, man-of-war, 
man-servant, major-general, Ottoman, ox-cart, piano-forte, 
son-in-law, step-son, tooth-brush, wagon-load, woman-servant, 
woman-singer. 

See if you can add to this list. 

(Note: "cupfuls" means one cup filled more than once.) 

58 



12. Words from foreign languages form their plu- 
rals in accordance with the laws of those languages. 
The examples given are for reference. (Optional.) 

There is a growing tendency to use Anglicized 
plural endings, as in "formula, formulas," instead of 
the Latin form "formulae." Notice in your clippings 
and reading what the practice of the best writers is 
in this respect. 

From the Latin 

a. (First declension, feminine, nouns ending in "a.") 
alga, algae ; alumna, alumnae ; fauna, faunae. 
Pluralize larva, minutia, nebula, vertebra. Add others. 

b. (Second declension, masculine, nouns ending in "us.") 
alumnus, alumni; bacillus, bacilli; focus, foci. 

Pluralize fungus, genius, iambus, locus, nucleus, radius, 
sarcophagus, stimulus, terminus. 

c. (Second declension, neuter, nouns ending in "urn.") 
addendum, addenda; bacterium, bacteria; curriculum, cur- 
ricula. 

Pluralize datum, erratum, gymnasium, maximum, medium, 
memorandum, minimum, momentum, spectrum, sta- 
dium, stratum. 

d. (Third declension, nouns ending in "is.") 
amanuensis, amanuenses; analysis, analyses. 

Pluralize antithesis, axis, basis, crisis, ellipsis, hypothesis, 
oasis, parenthesis, synopsis, thesis. 

e. (Nouns ending in "x.") 

appendix, appendices; radix, radices. 
Pluralize vertex, vortex. 

From the Greek 

f. phenomenon, phenomena; criterion, criteria, etc. 

Note: Many terms from the Latin and Greek are used in 
science chiefly. "Why? 

59 



Miscellaneous 

g. From the French. 

beau, beaux (Anglicized, beaus) ; tableau, tableaux. 

From the Italian : bandit, banditti. 

From the Latin : genus, genera. 

From the Hebrew : seraph, seraphim ; cherub, cherubim. 

13. The plurals of letters, figures, and signs are 
formed by adding the apostrophe and "s." (Impor- 
tant ! This is the only exception to the statement that 
" 's" is never used to form the plural of a noun.) 

a, a's; w, w's; 3, 3's; 5, 5's; -}-, + 's; &, &'s. 

The same rule applies to the plural of words which are 
mentioned without regard to the meaning. 

and's, if 's, but's, so's. Ex. : He used too many and's in his 
composition. 

14. Important ! Proper nouns form their plurals 
as common nouns do. It is sometimes better to avoid 
a plural proper noun or to pluralize the prefix. Either 
is correct. Examples : 

The Miss Smiths, or, The Misses Smith. 

The Joneses. The Browns, There were eight Henrys on 
the throne of England (preferable to Henries, which changes 
the original name.) Two Johns. Messrs. Smith, Brown and 
Co. Mesdames Peabody. 

Write the singular and plural form of the follow- 
ing. Use the plural form in sentences : 
show, field, window, ox, box, pony, tableau, cameo, hero, 
potato, banjo, burro, canto, lasso, piano, solo, alley, valley, 
ally, city, calf, leaf, shelf, roof, cliff, sheep, deer, trout, head, 
x, &, 3, horse-car, court-martial, forget-me-not, man-servant, 
spoonful, Norman, Brahman, German, Frenchman, talisman, 
Englishman, Ottoman, Englishwoman, Henry, Caesar, Nero, 
Mr. "Walker, Mrs. Brown, Miss Clark, cloth, fish, brother, die, 
genius, index, penny, shot, alms, measles, news, mathematics, 

60 



athletics, ashes, wages, radius, bacterium, stratum, phenome- 
non, larva, nucleus, vertebra, fungus, datum, bacillus, oasis, 
curriculum, nebula, alumnus, alumna, terminus, crisis, focus, 
analysis, cherub, Monsieur, Madam, bandit. 

Arrange the following in two columns, one for the 
singular and one for the plural form. Write the cor- 
responding singular or plural form if there is one and 
underline it. 

story, phenomena, hoop, strata, bacterium, heroes, potatoes, 
piano, radius, axes, data, valley, woman, enemy, leaf, genius, 
scissors, beau, riches, alumnus, ashes, mouse, athletics, m, 
wages, blackberry, news, chimney, curriculum, larva, bacilli, 
measles, vertebrae, crises, fungi, oasis, mathematics, scarf, gas, 
chief, butterfly. 

Insert the correct forms of the plural in the follow- 
ing sentences and underline them. 

1. Beautiful (gingham) and (organdie) were desplayed. 

2. The (Brown) and (Williams) entertained. 

3. The brook is full of (trout). 

4. This recipe requires three (cupful) of flour. 

5. Two (aid-de-camp) were sent away. 

6. There are twelve pages of (Brown) in the directory. 

7. There are four (Mary), two (Gladys), and two (Silas) 
in this class. 

8. Eight (deer) were seen by the party. 

9. The leader sent a present of three (sheep). 

10. Of all the (story), Anna's was the best. 

11. Trees are plentiful in river (valley). 

12. Some (bird) build their (nest) in (chimney). 

13. For Thanksgiving dinner we had to have two (turkey). 

14. Now (woman) are citizens as well as (man). 

15. The United States joined the (Ally). 

61 



16. The (country) of South America have not been fully 
explored. 

17. There were six (man-of-war) in the harbor. 

18. The Boy Scouts held two (court-martial). 

19. Four hundred (Knight Templar) were in the parade. 

20. He confused his (comma) and (semicolon). 

21. In the mountain stream he caught twelve (trout). 

22. All (radius) of a circle are equal. 

23. (Angle) a, b,, and, c are equal. 

24. The men left that part of the campaign to the 
(woman). 

Exercise 19 

THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS 

In English the possessive (genitive) form of a noun 
differs from the common form (nominative and objec- 
tive) by adding to the singular an apostrophe and "s" 
('s) and to the plural either an apostrophe (') or an 
apostrophe and "s" ('s), according to whether the 
plural form ends in "s" or not. 

The apostrophe originally represented the omission of a 
letter or letters. The early genitive form of the Anglo-Saxon 
word "man" was "mannes." This was contracted to "man's." 
The mannes hat = The man's hat. 

The possessive form always indicates that the word 
is a modifier of a substantive. It is an adjective in use. 
It usually indicates possession. 

It will be helpful to you to accustom yourself to lift the 
pencil, pen, or chalk from the writing surface before adding 
the "s" to indicate the possessive. Failure to do so makes it 
easy to forget to go back and insert the apostrophe. The 
apostrophe is a part of the spelling and should be inserted 
at the proper place when it comes. 

62 



Study the above and the following statements and 
apply the principles to your own writing. 

A. SINGULAR NUMBER 

Singular nouns form their possessives by adding 
the apostrophe and "s" ('s) to the common form. 
Example : boy, boy's. The boy's book is torn. "Boy's" 
corresponds in meaning to the prepositional phrase 
"of the boy." 

Notes. 

1. (Optional) Exception: For goodness' sake. The "s" after 
the apostrophe is dropped because of the unpleasant sound. 

2. Proper nouns follow the regular rule, Dickens's 
works, or Dickens' works. Both are correct. The 
former is, however, preferred. So, Burns'* s poems, or 
Burns' poems. Ulysses's adventures, or Ulysses' 
adventures. Be consistent in your use, as a class. 

Mark all the possessives in your clippings. Notice 
them in your reading. Bring illustrations for dis- 
cussion. Have a committee gather the material and 
report on it. 

3. Compound nouns and similar expressions form 
their possessive by the addition of the proper sign at 
the end of the expression: My sister-in-law's home. 
The King of England's throne. Do not use anybody 
else's pen. I have somebody else's rubbers. 

4. The indefinite pronoun "one" forms its posses- 
sive as a noun does : One's time is limited. (For pos- 
sessive of pronouns, see Ex. 21.) 

5. Usually the possessive form is used only with 
nouns denoting persons or animals. For inanimate 
objects it is usually better to use a corresponding 
phrase : The color of the book, not the book's color. 

G3 



There are some exceptions such as the following: 
A day's work, a week's pay, two months' vacation, a span's 
length, a ship's crew. 

6. When two or more nouns are used together to 
indicate ownership, make both possessive in form if 
the ownership is separate. Make only the last of two 
or more nouns possessive to indicate joint ownership. 

(a) John's and Mary's exercises. 

(b) Lyon and Healy's store. 

7. A peculiar construction combines the phrase 
form with a possessive : 

This is a favorite song of Lucy's. That is a book 
of mine. 

8. (Optional) For possessive case of gerunds, see 
Ex. 21. 

Rewrite the following sentences, using the posses- 
sive form of the words in parentheses. Make the apos- 
trophe very distinct. Underline each possessive. 

1. (John) hat is torn. 

2. Sun spots are caused by disturbances on the (sun) 
surface. 

3. The main character in " (Pilgrim) Progress" is Chris- 
tian. 

4. Was the bird (Margaret) or (Gladys) ? 

5. In this (morning) assembly, we had the most inspir- 
ing talk we have ever had. 

6. Do you like (Dickens) "A Tale of Two Cities"? 

7. Some people are willing to die for (conscience) sake. 

8. The Annual Staff wants the (editor-in-chief) picture 
for the Annual. 

9. (Mr. Roberts) classes will meet across the hall. 
10. (Louisa and Anna) room is very attractive. 

64 



11. (Smith and Jones) store is at the corner. 

12. The (baby) picture was taken. 

13. The (woman) purse was lost. 

14. Did you examine the (butterfly) wing? 

15. It is a (woman) privilege to change her mind. 

B. PLURAL NUMBER 

(a) If the common form (nominative and objec- 
tive) ends in "s," the possessive is formed by adding 
the apostrophe alone. Example : 

Boys, boys'. Boys' caps are always being lost. 

(b) If the common plural does not end in "s," the 
possessive is formed by adding " 's" as in the singular. 
Why? Example: 

Men, men's. Men's clothing is sold here. 

In forming the plural possessive of a noun, always 
make it plural first. Then add the sign of the pos- 
sessive. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS 
Singular Plural Singular Plural 
Common 

(Nom. and girl girls child children 

Obj.) 
Possess. girl's girls' child's children's 

In order to be sure that the student understands 
the meaning of the forms as well as the forms them- 
selves, it is well to have him use all the forms in sen- 
tences and to label them. If he makes errors in his 
themes, he should return to this exercise for further 
drill. 

The girl has a pencil. Sing. Nom. 

The girl's pencil is broken. Sing. Poss. 

The girls are happy. Plur. Nom. 

The girls 7 lockers are on the first floor. Plur. Poss. 

65 



Write similar sentences with the following and 
other nouns, as your teacher may direct, 
leader, teacher, woman, hero, friend, enemy, student, horse, 
soldier, parent, kitten,, citizen. 

Review Ex. 17 and 18 if necessary. 

In the following use the possessive form and under- 
line it: 

1. (Miners) lives are always in danger. 

2. As he was lame, he had never been able to participate 
in (boys) games. 

3. (Students) lockers should not be left open. 

4. The style of (men) hats changes as often as that of 
(women). 

5. Do you enjoy looking on at the (children) play- 
ground ? 

6. (Birds) feathers are used for commercial purposes. 

7. He had enclosed a check for two (months) rent. 

8. The (men) clothing store was closed on Saturday. 

9. (Longfellow) bust is in (Poets) Corner in Westmin- 
ster Abbey. 

10. The (fairies) tasks were unusual. 

(ADDITIONAL EXERCISES) 

Use the correct possessive forms : 

1. (Shakespeare) ("A Midsummer Night) Dream" is 
both beautiful and humorous. 

2. A (hero) first thought is for his country. 

3. The boy saw a (robin) nest. 

4. (Beaumont and Fletcher) plays were written in the 
Elizabethan Age. 

5. Darius Green tried to make a flying machine after the 
model of a (bat) wings. 

6G 



6. A (secretary) duty is to keep the records. 

7. Last (season) styles are still being worn. 

8. The place is south of (Mason and Dixon) line. 

9. Her summer home is a (three hours) ride from here. 

10. I am going away for a (two weeks) vacation. 

11. For (mercy) sake, don't let the scraps of paper fall 
on the floor. 

12. I borrowed a book of (Longfellow). 

13. He fell over the (ship) side. 

14. We came up to the (water) edge. 

15. She took a (four years) course at Vassar. 

16. He thought of his (country) welfare first. 

17. The (men) banquet was a success. 

18. He attended the (Older Brothers) conference. 

19. There goes our (girls) basketball team. 

20. They all admired (Sidney Carton) character. 

21. The (boys) sleds were new. 

22. The (merchant) stock contained (men), (women), 
(girls) and (boys) clothing. 

23. The (heroes) wounds were cared for. 

24. "We could see the (enemy) guns. 

25. (James) example is a good one to follow. 

26. The (boys) hats, the (girls) wraps, and the (children) 
rubbers were piled in a heap. 

27. The (ship) crew were nearly starved when they 
reached the island. 

28. The high schools are the (people) colleges. 

Use the possessive of the following in sentences. 
Underline and label for number and case. 

hero, enemy, brother, friend, heroes, enemies, fairies, chil- 
dren, three years, two months, Keats, fox, woman, women, 

67 



Ulysses, Xerxes, John and James, anybody else, Peter the 
Hermit, Alfred the Great, brother-in-law, Marshall Field & 
Co. 

Exercise 20 
CASE 
Case Uses : Chiefly Nominative and Objective. 
A. Common uses of the noun in the nominative 
case. 

1. Subject of verb. The farmer cut the grain. 

2. Predicate nominative (at- 

tribute or subjective 

complement). Webster was an orator. 

3. Vocative (independent or 

nominative by address). Pupils, do your best. 



4. In apposition. 



5. 



Nominative absolute. 
(Optional here.) 

B. Common uses 
(accusative) case. 

1. Direct object of verb. 

(Object complement.) 

2. Object of a preposition. 

3. In apposition. 



Miller, the banker, is the 
speaker. ( In apposition 
with the subject.) 

He is Miller, the banker. (In 
apposition with predicate 
nominative.) 

His father having come, we 
went down to dinner. 

of the noun in the objective 
I read the books. 

He received the book from his 
father. 

I saw Peary, the explorer. 
(In apposition with direct 
object.) 

The medal was given to Jack- 
son, the pitcher. (In appo- 
sition with object of prep- 
osition.) 

68 






(Optional) 

4. Subject of infinitive. We believed Henry to be the 

leader. (See Ex. 37.) 

5. Indirect object. (Also 

called dative case.) She gave her son a gift. 

6. Adverbial. (Noun used as 

adverb.) He ran home. 

7. Secondary object. (Objec- 

tive complement.) His parents named him Peter. 

C. Uses of noun in possessive (genitive) case. 
(See Ex. 19.) 

For possessive of gerund (optional) see Ex. 21. 

Notes. 

1. In the sentence, "Pupils, study your lessons," 
the subject is "you" understood. "Pupils" is merely 
used to call the attention of those spoken to. It is not 
the subject. It is nominative by address. 

2. In the predicate nominative construction, the 
verb between the subject and the complement is always 
some form of the verb "to be" or similar verbs (ap- 
pear, seem, become, etc.) (See Ex. 30.) In such sen- 
tences the subject and predicate nominative refer to 
the same person or thing: She is a queen. She seems 
a queen. She became a queen. 

3. A noun in apposition also means the same person 
or thing as the noun with which it belongs, but it fol- 
lows the noun directly. It is always in the same case 
as the noun with which it is in apposition. 

For elementary work the most important construc- 
tions to master are (1) subject of verb, (2) predicate 
nominative, (3) direct object, (4) object of preposition, 
(5) noun in apposition, (6) possessive modifier, and 
(7) noun in address. 

C>9 



In poetry and in other indirect writing the words 
are often inverted from the natural order in English, 
which is (1) subject, (2) verb, (3) complement. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONS 

1. A good student studies his lessons regularly. 

student, subject of verb studies, 
lessons, direct object of verb studies. 

2. Beetles are insects. 

beetles, subject of verb are. 

insects, predicate nom. with verb are. 

3. Frank is the captain of the team. 

Frank, subject of verb is. 

captain, predicate nom. with verb is. 

team, object of preposition of. 

4. We saw Pershing, the general. 

Pershing, direct object of verb saw. 
general, in apposition with Pershing. 

5. It is Arthur's turn. 

Arthur's, possessive modifier of turn, 
turn, predicate nom. with verb is. 

6. Children, stop quarreling. 

children, independent, nom. by address. 
quarreling, direct object of verb stop. 

Using the above as examples, point out all the 
nouns in the following sentences; underline each and 
explain its use and case, in the order in which the 
words occur: 

1. England expects every man to do his duty. 

2. The books are lying on the table. 

3. Is he not an excellent swimmer? 

4. The tall boy seemed the leader. 

5. He felt every inch a man. 

70 



Nom. case. 
Obj. case. 

Nom. case. 
Nom. case. 

Nom. case. 
Nom. case. 
Obj. case. 

Obj. case. 
Obj. case. 

Poss. case. 
Nom. case. 



Nom. case. 
Obj. case. 



6. His sister was named Alice. 

7. The armor on the wall shone brightly in the moonlight. 

8. The curfew tolled the knell of parting day. 

9. The original of the Great Stone Face is called the Old 
Man of the Mountain. 

10. There is no real conflict between religion and science. 

11. Madame Curie, the great scientist, visited America. 

12. The two men were complements of each other. 

13. Parkman wrote "The Oregon Trail," an account of a 
journey to the Great West. 

14. Who wrote "Gulliver's Travels"? 

15. Lincoln was our most deeply beloved president. 

16. John Carver was the first governor of Plymouth Col- 
ony. 

17. Stanley found Livingstone in the heart of Africa. 

18. The armistice having been signed, the fighting ceased. 

Exekcise 21 
PEONOUNS 
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. 

KINDS 

1. Personal, 

(a) Simple, 

(b) Compound, 

(1) Intensive, 

(2) Reflexive. 

2. Relative. 

3. Interrogative. (Optional as special form of 
pronoun.) 

71 



4. Demonstrative. 

5. Indefinite. (Optional as special form of pro- 
noun.) 

(a) Simple, 

(b) Reciprocal. 

An antecedent of a pronoun is the noun for which 
it is used. 

Avoid using pronouns without antecedents. 

Usage, however, allows such constructions as "They say." 

1. A personal pronoun is one that shows by its 
form whether it refers to the speaker (first person), 
the person spoken to (second person), or the person 
spoken of (third person). 

The declension of the personal pronoun should be 
mastered. It is given here for ready reference. 

First Person. 



Nom. 


I we 


Poss. 
Obj. 


my or mine our or ours 
me us 
Second Person. 


Common or Modern Form. Ancient, Sacred, and 
Sing, and Plur. Poetical Form. 
Nom. you Sing. Plur. 
Poss. your or yours Nom. thou ye 
Obj. you Poss. thy or thine your or yours 

Obj. thee you 
Third Person. 


Sing. Masc. 
Nom. he 
Poss. his 
Obj. him 


Fern. it Plural 

she Neuter they 

her or hers its their or theirs 

her it them 



Use each of the above in a sentence. Underline the 
pronoun and classify it as to (1) person, (2) number, 
and (3) case. 



72 



Notes. 

1. My, thy, her, our, your, and their are possessive 
pronouns, and are really adjectives in use. 

Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are used 
with no noun following. Although indicating posses- 
sion, they are truly pronouns. 

2. It's is not a possessive form of it, but a contrac- 
tion of "it is." Similarly you're and they're are not 

.possessives but merely contractions of "you are" and 
"they are." 

Important! No personal pronoun in the possessive 
case is written with an apostrophe. 

Correct : Yours truly. Incorrect : Yours truly. 

3. The personal pronoun you, even when used in 
the singular, always requires a plural verb : You were, 
not You was. 

The reason for this is that originally "you" was a plural 
form only. The singular form was "thou." 

4. In using together two or more personal pro- 
nouns of different persons, always place the one in the 
second or third person first, and the one in the first 
person last : 

You and I. He and I. They and we. 

5. Their is really a possessive adjective and must 
always modify a substantive. Distinguish it from 
there, which is an adverb, as in "My book is there," or 
an expletive as in "There are thirty persons in this 
class." 

Errors in the use of their should be eradicated by 
the help of drill. 

6. Them is always a pronoun in the objective case. 
As such, it cannot modify a substantive. It cannot 

73 



take the place of the demonstrative adjectives "these" 
and "those." Say "those things," not "them things." 

7. Pronouns have all the uses of nouns except that 
of adverbial objective. Eeview case uses in Ex. 20. 

Never use the objective form for the subject of the 
verb or the nominative for the object of a verb or 
preposition. 

"John and I went," not "John and me . . " 

Say "between you and me," not "between you and I." 

Say "He told it to us three," not ". . . to we three." 

8. (Optional.) Nouns and pronouns that modify 
gerunds are considered possessives. (The usage in 
some parts of England differs somewhat from ours in 
this respect.) 

Mother's coming so soon, Not: Mother coming so soon 
changed our plans. changed our plans. 

He objected to my going. Not : He objected to me going. 

9. Do not shift person of the pronoun in the same 
sentence. 

One should do the best one Not: One should do the best 
can. you can. 

10. The "rhetorical we" should be used sparingly. 

Fill in the blanks in the following with the correct 
form, its or it's : 

1. nearly time to go. 

2. a long way to Tipperary. 

3. She gave the dog bath. 

4. I couldn't see eyes. 

5. The quills of the porcupine are defense. 

6. too bad wing is broken. 

7. Brutus thought that what he was doing was for the 
good of Rome and people. 

74 



8. tail is long and fuzzy. 

9. The kitten chased tail. 

10. What is name? 

11. never too late to mend. 

12. The snail carries house on back. 

13. never too late to turn over a new leaf. 

14. too dark to see color. 

15. I have my doubts as to being true. 

16. time to go home. 

17. almost too late to go across the park. 

18. We couldn't estimate value. 

19. a good plan to make an outline. 

20. Put in an apostrophe wherever necessary. 

Fill in the blanks in the following with their, there, 
or they're. 

1. friends lived over 

2. were four men standing at the corner. 

3. They forgot to bring : lunch. 

4. I believe that not to blame. 

5. Is it house that is so beautiful? 

6. not a bit accommodating over 

7. We asked advice too late. 

8. She said she would not be , to-morrow. 

9. Coming events cast shadows before them. 

10. It was all due to carelessness. 

11. were five applicants for the position who had 

. recommendations with them and all very 



young. 

12. Not all have handed in papers. 

75 



13. is no need of material. 

14. All did best. 

15. were fifty policemen in the parade. 

16. I never thought of going to you. 

17. all too small. 

18. Children should have rights. 

19. I can't understand motive. 

20. not to blame for early training. 

Select the correct forms in the following. Give the 
reason: 

1. (Him, He) and (me, I) went to school together. 

2. I don't like (them, those) apples. 

3. "(You're, Your) late," he said. 

4. (Her, She) and (me, I) went picking flowers. 

5. (Was, Were) you surprised to see (you're, your) 
mother ? 

6. They (were, was) having a debate when I entered. 

7. It must have been (I, me) ; it couldn't have been (him, 
he). 

8. Who it it? It is (me, I), (he, him), (her, she), (them, 
they), (we, us). 

9. The book is (hers, her's), (our's, ours), (yours, 
your's), (their's, theirs). 

10. The pupil who did that was (I, me). 

Review 7 Predicative Nominative, Ex. 20, and Verbs, 
Ex. 30. 

11. She gave the books to Mary and (I, me). 

12. If you were (he, him), should you have gone? 

13. It might have been (me, I), but I think that you are 
mistaken. 

76 



14. You are as good as (her, she). 

15. It lies between you and (I, me). 

16. Is that you, George? Yes, (its, it's) (me, I). 

17. I am sure that these books were intended for you and 
(I, me.) 

18. He is happier than (I, me). (See Ex. 46.) 

19. I like her brother better than (her, she). 

20. It must have been (we, us) you saw. 

21. When she asked who was there, a voice answered, "It 
is (me, I)." 

22. All knew their lessons but (I, me). 

23. He was going with Bill and (me, I). 

24. I didn't know you (was, were) going. 

25. Between you and (I, me),, I think that she should go. 

26. Will you please lend me (them, those) books'? 

27. She did not refer to (us, we) girls at all. 

28. It happened when you (was, were) away. 

29. I am sure it was (they, them). 

30. He thought them to be (we, us). (See Ex. 37.) 

31. You may have seen two boys, but it wasn't (us, we). 

32. These are (them, they) that came out of great tribu- 
lation. 

33. If I were (he, him), I wouldn't go. 

34. They named a few of us: Bill, Harry, and (I, me). 

35. Several of us were late: Dick, Tom, and (me, I). 

36. Is anyone as wise as (thee, thou), Chief? 

37. It wasn't (me, I) who did it; it was (him, he). 

38. Who is there? It's (me, I), (he, him), (she, her), 
(they, them), (us, we). 

39. All went except (he, him), (she, her), (them, they), 
(us, we). 

40. No one spoke to (we, us) children about it. 

77 



Possessive Case of Gerunds. (Optional.) 
Copy, underline the correct forms, and be able to 
justify your choice. (See Ex. 37.) 

1. I hadn't heard of (his, him) coming. 

2. He thought that (them, their) being late was abso- 
lutely inexcusable. 

3. There is no use in (your, you) making such a fuss 
about the matter. 

4. It all depended on the (messenger, messenger's) get- 
ting there in time. 

5. If you do not see the reason for this requirement, there 
is no use in (me, my) explaining it any further. 

6. The success of the machine depends on (its, it) being 
in good condition. 

7. Do you object to (us, our) playing on the piano? 

8. There is no danger of (him, his) being late. 

9. No one thought of (him, his) coming so unexpectedly. 

10. Much depends on (you, your) understanding the 
grammatical relation of the words. 

11. His sister and I were distressed about (his, him) 
going. 

12. I never heard of (his, him) doing anything cowardly. 

13. What sense is there in a (boy, boy's) losing his 
temper ? 

Exercise 22 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

(Optional) 

A personal pronoun combined with the word "self" 

(plural "selves") forms a compound personal pronoun. 

Examples: myself, ourselves; yourself, yourselves; 

himself, herself, itself, and themselves. Note that no 

hyphen is used. 

78 



These forms cannot stand alone as the subject of a 
verb. They are used either as intensives, as in "I my- 
self will correct the papers," or as reflexives, as in "I 
hurt myself." 

Write sentences using all of the above pronouns 
correctly. 

Such forms as "ourn," "yourn," "hisn," "hern," "theirn," 
"theirselves," "itsself," and "hisself," are not permissible. 

In the following use the correct form. Underline 
each and classify it as to case and use. 

1. I am afraid that he will hurt (himself, hisself) with 
that knife. 

2. Three boys and (I, myself) went camping. 

3. There were four boys present: Dick, Bert, Fred, and 
(myself, I). 

4. The invitation was extended to my family and (me, 
myself) . 

5. Five others in the class and (myself, I) were dismissed. 

6. (Yourself, You) and your family are cordially invited 
to attend. 

7. Another girl and (I, myself) went to the Art Institute. 

8. The boys made the arrangements for the debate 
(theirselves, themselves). 

9. She invited Sarah and (myself, me) to go. 

10. "We do not like to exert (us, ourselves) in warm 
weather. 

Exercise 23 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

A relative pronoun is one that joins the clause in 
which it occurs to its antecedent. The clause is called 
a relative clause. 

79 



A compound relative pronoun is a relative pronoun 
combined with "ever" or "soever." 

The relative pronouns are as follows : ivho, which, 
that, what, as, and but. 

1. The boy who borrowed the book returned it. 

2. There I saw my father, who was glad to see me. 

3. The sentence which I mean is the first one on the page. 

4. Her hands, which were very white, were small. 

5. The house that you referred to has been painted re- 
cently. 

6. I know what I can do. (what = that which.) 

7. This is such a day as we all wanted. 

8. Hers is the same as his. 

9. There is no man but has his good qualities. 

The relative pronoun "who" is declined as follows, 
there being no change for number. 
Nominative : who. 
Possessive : whose. 
Objective : whom. 

The relative pronoun "who'' refers mainly to per- 
sons, "which" to animals or things, and "that" to per- 
sons, animals, or things. Be consistent in your use of 
"which" and "that" in the same sentence or paragraph. 

The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in 
gender, person, and number, but not necessarily in 
case : 

This is he whom you mentioned. 

In the above sentence, does or does not "whom" 
agree with its antecedent in case? 

The relative pronouns "which" and "what" may be 
used as adjectives: 

80 



I did not know which one you meant. 
We don't know what reason he gave. 
The relative pronoun may have the following uses 
in clauses : 

1. Subject of verb : Who steals my purse steals 

trash. 

2. Direct object: I know whom I have believed. 

3. Predicative nominative : This is not what I thought it 

was. 

4. Possessive modifier: The parent whose son has dis- 

obeyed him feels grieved. 

5. Object of preposition : I did not know of whom he was 

speaking. 

DESCEIPTIVE AND DETERMINATIVE 
CLAUSES 

(Optional.) (See Ex. 3.) 

Just as adjectives are descriptive or limiting, so 
are adjectival clauses. 

The determinative (restrictive) clause is the one 
which makes exactly known. This is the clause which 
tells who, what, or which is meant by the antecedent 
to which the relative clause is attached. It is like a big 
demonstrative adjective. It is closely connected to 
what it modifies and is necessary to indicate or point 
out definitely who or what is meant. Examples : 

He is a boy who always does well. 

This is the one whom I meant. 

The descriptive (non-restrictive) clause is in effect 
a big descriptive adjective. Example : 

Walter, who is frank, is a better companion than Roy, 
who is not. 

81 



The descriptive clause always adds something. It 
could he omitted without essentially changing the main 
thought of the sentence. 

The determinative clause is not set off by commas. 
The descriptive clause is set off by commas. 

In all the foregoing illustrations and in the follow- 
ing sentences, point out the relative pronouns. Tell 
which words they modify. Explain the construction 
of the relative pronouns in the sentence. Are the rela- 
tive clauses restrictive or non-restrictive? 

1. She gave the most attention to those who she thought 
needed it most. 

2. This is the best quality that you can buy. 

3. Whom do you think that the picture resembles? 

4. She didn't know whom to vote for. 

5. The question of who should be leader arose. 

6. I know who wrote that poem. 

7. The one who comes first should be served first. 

8. Tennyson, once England's Poet Laureate, polished his 
work carefully. 

9. Lowell, who was a prolific writer, could not bear to 
read over his writings, 

10. The Smith that I know is related to the Brown that 
you know. 

In the following select between the pronouns given 
and state reasons for your choice : 

1. The Black Knight relied upon the horse, (which, who) 
knew the road better than he. 

2. The friend (which, whom) I expected to find is not 
here. 

3. He dealt with a firm (which, who) does an extensive 
business. 

82 



4. An author (that, which) I enjoy very much is Mark 
Twain. 

5. She gave the gift to the boy (who, what) brings the 
mail. 

6. The three orators to (which, whom) he referred were 
Daniel "Webster, Patrick Henry, and Henry Clay. 

7. There are some people (which, who) never save any 
money. 

Exekcise 24 
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 
The interrogative pronouns are used in asking 
questions. They are : who, which, and ivhat. 

Be careful to distinguish between "which" and 
"what" as interrogative pronouns and as interrogative 
adjectives. 

Who are you ? Interrogative pronoun. 

Which do you want ? Interrogative pronoun. 

What did they do ? Interrogative pronoun. 

Which book did you say ? Interrogative adjective. 

What time is it ? Interrogative adjective. 

"Who" is used only of persons, "what" only of 
things, and "which" either of persons or of things. 

"Which" and "what" are uninfiected. "Which." is 
used as singular and plural, nominative and objective. 
"What" is used for both cases, but is always singular. 
They have no possessive case. 

The interrogative pronoun "who" is defined as the 
relative pronoun "who" is. The forms are: who, 
whose, whom. 

Be able to distinguish between these words used as 
interrogative pronouns and as relative pronouns. As 
the latter, they always introduce subordinate clauses. 



The construction of the interrogative pronoun in 
an interrogative sentence may be found by changing 
the order around: 

Whom did you see! = You did see whom? 

Interrogative pronouns are used in indirect ques- 
tions. The latter are always noun clauses. 

Indirect question. Direct. 

They asked who we were. They asked, "Who are you?" 

Underline the interrogative pronouns in the follow- 
ing. Give the construction of each. 

Do not fail to put an interrogation point (question 
mark) at the close of an interrogative sentence. Fail- 
ure to do so usually means carelessness, such as failing 
to place periods, to dot the i's, etc. Such errors should 
be discovered by reading over a theme or exercise be- 
fore handing it in. 

1. "Who shall ascend unto the hill of the Lord? 

2. Whom did you see there ? 

3. Who do men say that I am ? 

4. Whom did Charlie go to see? 

5. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world 
and lose his soul? 

6. Whose is this? 

7. Who is the speaker of the house? 

8. Which can he mean? 

9. To whom are you speaking? 

10. What is your name? 

11. What are the Ten Commandments? 

12. Whom did you see ? 

13. Who do you think I am ? 

84 



14. Who did you think it was ? 

15. Who do you think wrote this letter? 

16. Who do you think will take her over? 

17. Whom do you think I visited this summer ? 

18. Whom do you believe that stranger to be ? 

19. Whom do you suppose I saw today? 

Exercise 25 
USE OF "WHO" AND "WHOM" 
Eemember that "who" is always in the nominative 
case and "whom" is always in the objective case. 

Fill the blanks with the proper form in the follow- 
ing sentences. Give its use in the sentence : 

1. We met Mr. and Mrs. White, we found to be 

delightful people. 

2. The boy asked if I knew he was . 

3. They sent the invitation to all they thought 

would come. 

4. We were disagreed as to would make the 

best president of our club. 

5. One day during his visit to Sir Roger, he met an old 
hag Sir Roger said was a witch. 

6. I don't know to believe. 

7. They were undecided about should go first. 

8. I did not know he was until later. 

9. did they invite? 

10. These are the visitors we said were coming. 

11. We suspected those we knew had bad records. 

12. The other day I met a boy I thought was you. 

13. do you mean? 

14. did you think he meant ? 

15. do you think it was? 

85 



Exercise 26 

DEMONSTRATIVE AND INDEFINITE 

PRONOUNS 

The demonstrative pronouns are used for the pur- 
pose of pointing out. They are the following : 

Singular: this, that. 

Plural: these, those. 

This is the house the Jack built. 

That is what I call studying. 

These are the leaders. 

Those cannot be mine. 

If these words are used to modify substantives, 
they become demonstrative adjectives. 

Pronouns. Adjectives. 

This is mine. This book is mine. 

That is yours. That pencil is red. 

These are the best. These flowers are pretty. 

Those belong to me. Those apples are sour. 

A pronoun not referring definitely to any partic- 
ular person or thing is called an indefinite pronoun. 

The following are commonly used : 

all each many one another (of more 

any each other (of two) much other than two) 

another either naught several 

anybody every none some 

aught few no one some one 

both little one such 

If these are used to modify substantives, they be- 
come indefinite adjectives. 

Any, any one, each, either, every, and neither are 
always singular. They mean any one, each one, etc. 

86 



Pronouns that refer to them as antecedents are singu- 
lar in number. 

A very common error is the use of the plural pro- 
nouns "they," "their," and "them" with single in- 
definite pronouns as their antecedents. Every high 
school student should train himself to overcome this 
bad speech habit if he has it. 

Sometimes in order to avoid saying "his or her," 
when it is awkward, or to avoid using "his" to include 
both sexes, it is better to avoid the singular construc- 
tion. 

"All students should have their work done on time" 
is sometimes better than to say, "Every student should 
have his or her work done on time." 

Be consistent in the use of pronouns. Do not shift 
from one person to another in the same sentence. 

Faulty. Improved. 

One can never tell when you One can never tell when one 

will be called on to face a will be called on to face a 

crisis. crisis. 

The masculine pronouns he, his, and him are reg- 
ularly used in a generic sense to include both sexes. 

He is the best student who is diligent in his studies. 

Write sentences using as subjects all the indefinite 
pronouns given above, and in these sentences also use 
personal pronouns to refer to these indefinite pro- 
nouns. Justify the form you used. 

Use them all in sentences as indefinite adjectives. 

Write the following, using the correct form. Give 
reason. 

1. Each must do (his, their) very best. 

2. Every one of you (is, are) eligible. 

87 



3. Every one (are, is) asked to bring (his, their) own 
copy. 

4. Neither of the boys (were, was) able to go. 

5. Each of them went quietly to (their, his) own home. 

6. Every one said that (they, he) would volunteer. 

7. Neither Margaret nor Helen brought (her, their) 
music. 

8. (Have, Has) every one received (his, their) wages? 

9. No one but George and Stewart (were, was) absent. 

10. Everybody in the room must do (his, their) own work. 

11. In our house every one gets (his, their) own breakfast. 

12. Every one at some time finds (himself, themselves) in 
a place where (he, they) (have, has) to make an important 
choice. 

13. Every one of you (is, are) responsible for the spirit 
of the school. 

14. He is a man who calls everything by (their, its) right 
name. 

15. Everybody in the world (has, have) (their, his) faults. 

16. If anybody (doesn't, don't) know what to do, (he, 
they) should inquire. 

17. When any one goes camping, (they, he) should take 
plenty of bedding. 

18. Neither the lawyer nor the physician gave (his, their) 
services. 

19. Each one wore (his, their) best clothes. 

20. When anybody tried to peek, Darius Green would let 
a dipper full of water fly in (their, his) face. 

21. Everybody is responsible for (their, his) influence on 
(his, their) associates. 

22. Neither Ruth nor Marie (have, has) (their, her) 
wraps. 



23. One can never know how much (he, they) can ac- 
complish until (he. they) (try, tries). 

24. Every one stopped what (he, they) (was, were) doing 
to look and listen. 

Exekcise 27 
EEVIEW OF PRONOUNS 
Point out all the pronouns. Underline them. 
' Classify them as to kind and use. 

1. Those who come first will get the best seats. 

2. The tailor that lived on Clark Street has moved. 

3. With whose permission did he advertise the play? 

4. Who gives himself with his alms feeds three, 
Himself, his hungering neighbor, and me. 

5. I have no ink ; please give me some. 

6. "God save thee, Ancient Mariner, 

From the fiends that plague thee thus ! 
"Why look'st thou so?" "With my crossbow 
I shot the Albatross." 

7. What is the name of that flower? 

8. Give me what you have in your hand. 

9. Give me both. 

10. That is what I asked you. 

11. I want both or neither. 

12. Take heed that ye do not your alms before me, to be 
seen of them. 

13. Which do you prefer, the red or the blue ? 

14. Please give me some. 

15. Rudyard Kipling, whom Americans at first disliked 
because he criticised them severely, has since received deserved 
recognition. 

16. Neither of these answers is right. 

89 



17. "What does "Many are called, but few are chosen" 
mean? 

18. She gave it to whoever wanted it. 

19. How happy is he born and taught 

That serveth not another's will; 
Whose armor is his honest thought, 
And simple truth his utmost skill. 

20. What are you laughing at ? 

21. Whosoever will may come. 

22. Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of 
these. 

23. Whom shall we invite ? 

24. We shall do whatever seems best. 

REVIEW 

In the following pick ont all the pronouns and give 
all the grammatical facts about them that you can : 

(1) Life must be for you a strange mixture of joys and 
sorrows. (2) You cannot expect every moment of it to be 
pleasant. (3) In fact, no one can hope to obtain for himself 
only the sweets and none of the bitters in this, our earthly 
existence. (4) What would be the object of desiring such an 
existence? (5) Who does not desire contrasts? (6) That is 
a barren life that is always on one level. (7) How monot- 
onous it would be for anybody ! ( 8 ) Joys, sorrows — of such 
are these days of ours. (9) Meet them, the joys and sorrows 
of your days, as one meets friends, all helpful, each aiding 
you and me in such ways as we may not yet understand. (10) 
He who smilingly accepts the day as it is will know more of 
the sweet than of the bitter. 

Exekcise 28 
ADJECTIVES: KINDS 
An adjective is a word that modifies a substantive. 

90 



Descriptive. 

Common: A strong man. 
Proper: An American citizen. 
Limiting. 
Article. 

Definite : The house. 
Indefinite : A verb. An adverb. 
Prenominal. 

Possessive: My, thy, his, her, its, your, their 

house. 
Demonstrative: This, that book; these, those 

books. 
Interrogative: Which problem? What time 1 
Relative : Which, whose, what. (See Ex. 23.) 
Indefinite: Some, every, each, any, no, both, etc. 
(See Ex. 26.) 
Numeral. 

Cardinal : Four hours. 
Ordinal : The fourth time. 

Degree of Adjectives 
Positive : high joyous 

Comparative : higher more joyous 

Superlative : highest most joyous 

Use each of the above adjectives in sentences and 
add one more of each kind in a sentence. Underline 
and classify each kind. 

Phrases and clauses may be used as adjectives. 
Grammatically adjective phrases and clauses have the 
value of a single word. 

91 



The tall trees are in the forest. Adjective. 

The trees in the forest are tall. Adjective phrase. 

The trees which are in the forest are tall. Adjective clause. 

"This" and "that" are singular. "These" and 
"those" are plural. It is not, therefore, correct to say 
"these" or "those" hind or sort. 

Correct form : 

I like this kind of apple. I like these apples. 

They are fond of that sort of books. They are fond of 
those books. 

USES OF ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives and participles (See Ex. 37) may be 
used in three relations to substantives : 

1. Adherent : The tall tree was cut down. 

2. Appositive : The tree, tall and straight, was cut 

down. 

3. Predicate: The tree was tall. 

1. It is a very common fault to fail to capitalize 
proper adjectives. 

The American people, not the american people. 

He had studied the English, French, and Latin 
languages. 

2. Compound adjectives composed of a noun modi- 
fied by an adjective require the hyphen to show the 
adjective relation. Example : "A two-year course." If 
written separately, the words would mean a two course 
and a year course. Distinguish this form from that in 
"a two years' course." Either is correct. 

A three-mile track. A ten-inning game. 

3. As a matter of usage, overworked and undigni- 
fied words such as lovely, great, stvell, classy, cute, 

92 



nifty, wonderful, nice, etc., are objectionable. Try to 
find in their place adjectives that really express the 
exact shade of meaning. Like the nse of slang, the use 
of such expressions usually indicates poverty of vocab- 
ulary. Have a class committee report on this subject. 

4. The forms of the verb "to be" and other copula- 
tives (seem, appear, become, feel, taste, etc.) require 
as complements adjectives and not adverbs. (See Ex. 
44.) 

"She feels timid," not "She feels timidly." 

5. Real is an adjective, not an adverb. It is an error 
in grammar as well as in good usage to say, "I was real 
tired" for "I was very tired." Correct use of real: 
"The lace was real." 

Point out and classify all the adjectives in the fol- 
lowing sentences. Tell what they modify. Include 
adjective phrases and clauses. 

1. Many hands make light work. 

2. No one was to blame. 

3. We saw twenty submarines. 

4. Such books should not be published. 

5. Whichever road he takes, he will get there in an hour. 

6. Yonder elm tree marks the spot where Washington 
took command of the American army. 

7. Both suggestions were unwise. 

8. I like this kind of poem. 

9. Many a man has earned his bread by the sweat of his 
brow. 

10. She planned to take a European trip. 

Write a list of descriptive adjectives taken from 
your clippings. Consult a dictionary and find good 
substitutes for each of these. 

93 



Change some of the adjectives in your list into ad- 
jective phrases or adjective clauses. 

Exercise 29 
ARTICLES 

An article is one kind of limiting adjective. (See 
Ex. 28.) 

"A" is used before a word beginning with a conson- 
ant sound: A horse, a book, a garden, a humble ro- 
mance, a union, a university. 

"An" is used before a word beginning with a vowel 
sound: An adjective, an adverb, an heir, an hour, an 
orator, an aeroplane. 

What is the meaning of the following! 

1. They had a blue and white banner. 

2. They had a blue and a white banner. 

3. She had a black and white parasol. 

4. We saw the secretary and treasurer of the club. 

5. We saw the secretary and the treasurer of the club. 

Study your clippings to see how the use of the 
article changes the meaning. 

Using "a" for "an" is an error most frequently due 
to carelessness. 

Train yourself to enunciate distinctly. This should 
help. Careless students should be required to do exer- 
cises like the following one. 

Copy, underlining the correct form. 

1. He is (a, an) officer in the R. 0. T. C. 

2. Have you ever seen (a, an) aeroplane? 

3. (An, A) adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun. 

94 



4. It was just the night for (a, an) initiation. 

5. (A, An) unmarried woman is addressed as Madam 
when she is acting as chairman. 

6. We were fortunate in meeting (a, an) artist. 

7. Diogenes was searching for (an, a) honest man. 

8. Once I had (a, an) interesting experience with wasps. 

9. Do you know what (an, a) ostrich eats? 

10. Every morning she eats (a, an) orange. 

11. It is a great privilege to get (a, an) university 
education. 

12. It was (a, an) union of nations. 

13. That was (a, an) heroic deed. 

14. There she was, under (a, an) arbor. 

15. The broken glass almost cut (a, an) artery. 

16. They came in (a, an) automobile. 

17. Every student should feel that it is (a, an) honor to 
belong to the scholarship society. 

18. He found (a, an) old automobile tire. 

19. Then we had (a, an) automobile ride. 

20. She knew (a, an) herb that would cure that. 

Exercise 30 

VERBS 

A verb is a word that asserts. 

Kinds of Verbs. 

Transitive : He read the book. 

Cats catch mice. 
Intransitive. 

Complete : He plays beautifully. 

They play for pleasure. 
95 



Linking : 


They are happy. 


(Incomplete or 




copulative) 


They became happy. 


Conjugation. 




Eegular : 


hop, hopped, hopped. 




hope, hoped, hoped. 


Irregular : 


swim, swam, swum. 




come, came, come. 


Progressive : 


I am going. I was coming. 


Interrogative : 


Are you going 1= You are 




going. 


Negative : 


I am not going. 


Emphatic : 


He does study. 


Person and Number. 


Singular. Plural 


First: 


go go 


Second : 


go go 


Third : 


goes go 


Voice. 




Active : 


The boy built the boat. 


Passive : 


The boat was built by the 




boy. 


Mood. 




Indicative : 


I am going to-morrow. 


Imperative : 


Rewrite these exercises. 


Subjunctive : 


If I were he, I should go. 



The modal forms are always predicative. They 
assert. Verbals do not. (See Ex. 37.) 

Verbs : Kinds 
A verb that indicates action as passing from a doer 
to the object affected is known as a transitive verb : 

96 



1. The man beat the carpet. 

2. John hoed the beans. 

3. The lightning struck the tree. 

4. The boy trained his dog. 

5. Robert made a model of an aeroplane. 

A verb that denotes action, being, or state of being, 
that concerns or involves only the subject, is known as 
an intransitive verb : 

1. Water freezes. 

2. The ball rolls. 

3. The wind blows lightly. 

4. The wind is blowing. 

5. Lions roar. 

A transitive verb has a direct object. An intransi- 
tive verb has not. 

Use the following verbs in sentences. Which of 
them have you used as transitive verbs, and which as 
intransitive verbs? Which could have been either! 
find, ran, sailed, grow, break, will study, froze, talked, said, 
build, run, write, fly, hit, lift, showed. 

Write a list of twenty verbs taken from your clip- 
pings. State whether they are transitive or intransi- 
tive. Point out the direct objects. 

(See Ex. 2.) 

Linking Verbs 

The verb "to be" and its forms are of very great 
importance. This verb is the backbone of all Aryan 
languages. You will rind its equivalent in Latin, 
French, Spanish, German, etc. In any selection or set 
of exercises, note the verbs to see how many of them 
are forms of "to be." Do this for Ex. '2. 

97 



It is important to learn all the forms of the small 
but very commonly nsed word, "to be." 

Forms of Verb "To Be." 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. 

I am We are I was We were I shall be We shall be 
You are You are You were You were You will be You will be 
He is They are He was They were He will be They will be 

Present Perfect Tense. Past Perfect Tense. 

I have been We have been I had been We had been 

You have been You have been You had been You had been 

He has been They have been He had been They had been 

Future Perfect Tense. 
I shall have been We shall have been 

You will have been You will have been 

He will have been They will have been 

The verb "to be" is a pure or linking verb. It does 
not in itself express action, etc., but it enables ns to 
make an assertion: (1) The carpenter is industrious. 

(2) The carpenter is working. (3) A tornado is a 
violent storm. 

As this verb is merely a connective, it is sometimes 
called a copula. If such a verb were omitted, the group 
of words would fail to be a sentence. Such a verb 
requires a complement to complete its meaning. Hence 
it is sometimes called an incomplete verb. The comple- 
ment may be a predicate adjective, as in (1) above. 
(See Ex. 44.) It may be a part of the verb, as in (2) 
above. (See Ex. 33.) It may be a substantive, as in 

(3) above. (See Ex. 8.) 

Most verbs in addition to asserting name an attri- 
bute, usually an action attribute. The boy ran = The 
boy was running. 



The forms of "to be" require that the complement 
be in the same case as the subject : (1) This is he. (2) 
He believed him to be me. 

Some other verbs that act similarly and require the 
same kind of complement are the following : 

Seem, become, appear, look, feel, taste, grow, turn, 
smell, etc. 

Write sentences using these as copulative verbs. 
They differ from the verb "to be" and its forms in that 
they have some special meaning of their own. 

In the following sentences state whether the verbs 
are transitive, intransitive, or linking. Point out the 
subjects and the complements. 

1. I broke my pen. 

2. The clouds broke and disappeared. 

3. He lifted a hundred pounds. 

4. Before ten o'clock the fog lifted. 

5. His uniform showed conspicuously. 

6. The boy flew the kite. 

7. He won the race. 

8. Ostriches run rapidly. 

9. He walked the horse up the grade. 

10. It is good exercise to walk briskly. 

11. The boy grew rapidly. 

12. The farmer grew potatoes in his front yard. 

13. We shall sail to-morrow. 

14. The boy caught ten fish. 

15. Misery loves company. 

16. She writes beautifully. 

17. They are going to-morrow. 

99 



18. Where are you going? 

19. The father could trust his son. 

20. The judges announced the decision, 

21. Our team won the debate. 

22. His automobile runs smoothly. 

23. Man is a living organism. 

24. The laborer dug the ditch. 

25. That was John. 

26. I saw him. 

27. The full moon rises early. 

28. The young man repaired the automobile. 

29. Where is your cap ? 

30. He stands a man. 

31. He went out a mate ; he came back a captain. 

32. She moves a queen. 
33.. He appeared the leader. 

Exercise 31 
VERBS: THE PRINCIPAL PARTS 

Some verbs form their past tense and past parti- 
ciple by adding "d" or "ed" to the present tense. 

Principal Parts. 



Present. Past. 


Past Participle. 


Present Participle. 


help helped 
hope hoped 
hop hopped 


helped 
hoped 
hopped 


helping 
hoping 
hopping 


1. I help now. 


I helped yesterday. 


I have helped. 


2. They hope now. 


They hoped yester- 
day. 


They have hoped. 


3. Birds hop. 


The birds hopped. 
100 


The birds have hop- 
ped. 



Such verbs are said to be regular. They are also 
called weak verbs. 

Participles are words that are formed from verbs 
and express action, but do not assert. They are called 
verbals and must never be confused with true verbs, 
which always assert. 

The forms given above are called the Principal 
Parts of verbs. The form of the past participle is used 
with "have" and its forms to indicate action completed 
in past time. It is used with forms of the verb "to be" 
for the forms of the passive voice. (See Ex. 35.) 

Besides the above forms, another form is often 
used. It is the present participle, which is formed by 
adding "ing" to the form of the present tense. It is 
used with forms of the verb "to be" in the progressive 
form of verbs, which indicates action as progressing 
or going on: 

He is helping, hoping, hopping, etc. 

(See Ex. 37.) 

It is important to learn the correct way to form the 
past, past participle, and present participle of a verb 
from the form of the present tense. There are helpful 
rules for spelling these forms. Add others to the list 
given above and note the changes in spelling. 

Note : The verbs "pay," "say," and "lay" differ from other 
verbs in not adding "ed" but in changing the "y" to "i" and 
adding "d." 

Give the principal parts of "try," "study," 
"modify." 

Note other words of this sort. 

Give the principal parts and the present participle 
of the following : 

101 



Raise, ask, show, heat, flee, leap, flow, light, hang, wake, 
bid, call, love, burn, jump, spell, spill, sweep, teach, work, 
avoid, burst, drown. 

Look up doubtful ones in your Grammar or in your 
dictionary. 

Write a number of these in sentences. Underline 
the "ed" in the past tense and past participle if you 
have been in the habit of omitting it carelessly. Care- 
ful enunciation will help you to overcome this fault. 

"I helped my mother yesterday," not ''I help my 
mother yesterday." 

Select twenty verbs that give trouble in that way. 
Use them in sentences. 

Write the following with the correct form of the 
past tense or past participle : 

1. We (heat) the water. 

2. John (show) us where to go. 

3. The teacher (ask) a question. 

4. Our friends (avoid) us when they had seen us. 

5. I (work) hard all day yesterday. 

6. Then a band of warriors (capture) the city. 

7. Tom and Maggie (go) down together and were 
(drown). 

8. We first (ask) the farmer's permission and then we 
(gather) the apples. 

9. Mary (show) her sister how to do the problem. 
10. The horse (jump) over the fence. 

Irregular Verbs 
A verb that indicates past action by changing inter- 
nally is called an irregular or a strong verb. Some 
verbs combine the two ways of indicating past action 
and are called mixed verbs. 

102 



The following are verbs that are often used incor- 
rectly. Add to these others that you have misused or 
heard others misuse. Look up in your Grammar those 
of which you are doubtful. 

See, say, do, go, run, come, begin, ring, sing, drink, shrink, 
draw, swim, blow, break, burst,, heat, grow, ride, shine, show, 
slay, speak, strive, throw, write, forget, freeze, fly, flee, flow, 
get, bid (to command), strike (to deal blows), strike (to suffer 
misfortune), light, hang (to suspend), hang (to execute), bid 
(at auction), lose, choose, lead. 

Use the above in sentences to show their correct use. 

Note that auxiliary verbs are never used with the 
past tense, but must always be used with the past 
participle : 

"Have run/' "have come/' "have seen," not "have 
ran/' "have came," "have saw." 

"I came," "I said," "I did," "I saw," not "I come," 
"I says," "I done," "I seen." 

The following are verbs only: did, went, broke, 
took, rang, ought, wrote, saw. 

The following are verbals only: done, seen, taken. 
(They require an auxiliary.) 

The word "got" is not an auxiliary. 

Say, "He was married," not "got married." 

The incorrect, slangy form "bust" is often used as a regu- 
lar form instead of the form "burst," which changes its form 
only as a present participle. 

For "lie," "lay," "sit," "set," "rise," "raise," etc., 
see Ex. 38. 

Some verbs state distinct meanings of their own 
and are not used to help other verbs. 

Example : I invited my friend. 

103 



A verb that helps to express the meaning of other 
verbs is called an auxiliary verb. It is used to help to 
make up certain forms of mood, tense, and voice. 

Some verbs are deficient in some of their parts. 
Such are "can (could)/' "may (might)," "shall 
(should)," "will (would)," "must," and "ought." 
These are called defective verbs. They have no infin- 
itive or participle, and no imperative mood. They 
form no compound tenses. They are also used as 
auxiliaries. 

The following verbs are also sometimes used as 
helpers with other verbs to form verb phrases : 

Be, do, and have, and their forms. 
Note : Some of the above are not always used as auxiliary 
verbs. Note especially "have," "do," and "be." 

In using "have" as an auxiliary, be sure to enunciate dis- 
tinctly: "I would have gone," not "I would of gone." 

In the following point out the verb phrases and the 
auxiliaries. Eeview Ex. 2 and Ex. 9. 

1. What are you doing? 

2. I must have been mistaken. 

3. The horses are running away. 

4. Where in the world can he be? 

5. The letter had been opened. 

6. Walter has never been tardy. 

7. I couldn't see her reason for disobeying the rule. 

8. I might have gone if I had known it in time. 

9. They have neglected their duty. 

10. Some birds have interesting nests. 

11. Don't you know the rules of the game? 

12. I do like frankness when it isn't rudeness. 

104 



13. He had already finished his problem. 

14. He ought not to have gone. 

15. I can promise you a good time. 

Supply the proper form, past or past participle, of 
the indicated verb : 

1. The chorus (sing) two numbers. 

2. He (say) he couldn't go. 

3. The river (flow) swiftly. 

4. The visitors (come) into the room quietly. 

5. They have (choose) their partners. 

6. The captain (lead) his troops on to victory. 

7. He (say) he had not (do) it. 

8. The teacher (begin) the dictation slowly. 

9. The child (burst) the balloon. 

10. My pen is (break). 

11. The explorer had (freeze) his hands. 

12. They had (drink) all the water. 

13. We (watch) the bubble as it (burst). 

14. The prisoners (flee) by night. 

15. It was not I who (do) it. 

16. She felt better when she had (drink) a cup of hot tea. 

17. He (say) he had just (finish) the book. 

18. I had (swim) across the tank. 

19. He (say) that he wouldn't do it. 

20. The water-pipes (burst) when we had zero weather. 

21. I (see) her when she (do) it. 

22. He (begin) to wonder where he was. 

23. He had hardly (begin) to recite when the bell (ring). 

105 



24. The pupils' work was (do) well. 

25. He had (lead) his squad on a hike. 

26. The fine piece of china was (break). 

27. Did you see who (do) it? 

28. I've never (see) her. 

29. His arm was (break) when he (crank) the machine. 

30. I (see) my duty and I (do) it. 

31. Nathan Hale was (hang) at sunrise. 

32. His picture was (hang) in the art gallery. 

33. His sickness could not, have been caused by the water 
he (drink), for we had (drink) from that stream before. 

34. Her mother (bid) her sit still. 

35. That was very well (draw). 

Exeecise 32 
VERBS : PERSON AND NUMBER 

Verbs are said to be in the Singular or Plural Num- 
ber according as the subject is singular or plural. They 
are in the First, Second, or Third Person, according to 
whether the subject is in the first, second, or third per- 
son. (See Ex. 21.) 

A few verbs are used impersonally. (See Ex. 2.) 
There are several forms in which errors frequently 
occur. 

The verb "to be" changes its form in the present 
tense for person, in the singular number, in all three 
persons. 

Most verbs change only in the third person, singu- 
lar number, in the present tense. Note the following: 

I am We are I run I study 1 try I do 

You are You are You run You study You try You do 
He is They are He runs He studies He tries He does 

106 



Write the forms of the past tense of these verbs. 

(See Ex. 39.) 

In the above forms the pronouns are not a part of the verb, 
but are given to show how the form of the subject affects the 
form of the verb. The form "he" is used for convenience. 
In its place might be written "she," "it," or the name of any 
person or thing used as subject. 

Note that "yon" always takes a plural verb. 

Errors frequently occur in the use of "don't" and 
"doesn't." 

I do I do not, or don't 

You do You do not, or don't 

He does He does not, or doesn't 

We do We do not, or don't 

You do You do not, or don't 

They do They do not, or don't 

The forms "does" and "doesn't" are the forms of 
the third person, singular number. To say, "he, she, 
it don't" or "Don't he, she, it?" is to mix the person and 
number. 

Avoid the ignorant error of adding "es" to form the 
third person singular, instead of "s" in a verb like 
"show." 

"He shows temper," not "He showes temper." 

Use in sentences, in the present tense, the third per- 
son singular form of the following : 

Study, do, say, drag, drop, try, pay. 

A verb must agree with its subject in person and 
number. Note the following points in the correction 
of errors : 

1. A compound noun requires a plural verb. 

107 



2. A collective noun requires a singular verb if the 
group is considered as a whole, but a plural verb if the 
individuals are thought of separately. (See Ex. 15.) 

3. The pronoun "you" always requires a plural 
verb. 

4. The title of a book, even though it looks plural, 
is considered singular. 

5. Some nouns are so closely associated that they 
have become regarded as one and require a singular 
verb. 

6. Two nouns joined by "either" or "neither" re- 
quire a singular verb. 

7. A word is not made plural by adding such 
phrases as "along with," "in addition to," "as well as," 
etc. 

8. The fact that a plural noun immediately pre- 
cedes a verb, does not necessarily make the verb plural. 

9. "Don't" means "do not." The subject must not 
be in the third person singular. 

10. All distributive adjectives or pronouns make a 
singular verb necessary. Review Ex. 26. 

11. A fraction is considered as singular. 

12. A sum of money is considered as singular. 

Examples: 

1. Mary and John are here. 

2. A ball and socket form a joint. 

3. I didn't know you were going. 

4. "Tales of a Traveller," by Irving, contains interesting 
stories of adventure. 

5. His food and drink was little enough. 

108 



6. Neither John nor James was able to go. 

7. The captain, along with a thousand men, is crossing 
the river. 

8. Mr. Jones with his boys is going on a fishing trip. 

9. Let him alone ; he doesn't know any better. 

10. Everybody was ready at the appointed time. 

11. Two-thirds of nine is six. 

12. A thousand dollars is the initial cost. 

Copy and underline the correct forms in the follow- 
ing. Give reasons. Point out agreement of subject 
with predicate. (See Ex. 15.) 

1. There (has, have) been several quarrels between her 
and (I, me). 

2. John as well as his sisters (are, is) going. 

3. Neither he nor I (are, is) going. (Study usage of best 
writers on this point.) 

4. The sum of ten dollars (was, were) set aside for inci- 
dental expenses. 

5. There (are, is) some general rules about the agreement 
of verbs with (there, their) subjects that every one should 
master. 

6. The soldier's name is recorded; then (follow, follows) 
his age and address. 

7. More than one (has, have) complained about the long 
assignments. 

8. One of her tonsils (are, is) sore. 

9. Five times three (are, is) fifteen. 

10. A fleet of fifty submarines (was, were) seen. 

11. Such courage and bravery (are, is) not often seen. 

109 



12. Bread and milk (are, is) a perfect food for children. 

13. There (was, were) no fires following this wreck. 

14. The class (is, are) anxious to make a good record. 

15. Parts of this theme (is, are) very bad. 

16. As there (is, are) no sidewalks, we had to walk on the 
streets. 

17. There (go, goes) the heroes. 

18. The class (is, are) sending a note of congratulation. 

19. The public generally (was, were) invited. 

20. There (was, were) a hundred boys at the camp. 

21. One of the boys (was, were) guilty. 

22. Three-fifths of twenty (is, are) twelve. 

23. He said it would be easy to identify him, as one of his 

fingers (was, were) off. 

24. The humorous side of Shakespeare's plays (are, is) of 
great interest, too. 

25. There (are, is) many types of readers in a public 
library. 

26. There (were, was) a few tenderfeet down in the val- 
ley, too. 

27. The jury (is, are) making (its, their) decision. 

28. The jury (is, are) eating (its, their) dinner. 

29. The team (is, are) living up to (its, their) reputation. 

30. The team (are, is) getting new uniforms. 

31. The number of boys in the class (are, is) fifteen. 

32. A number of boys (is, are) waiting for you. 

33. Every one of you (are, is) able to do this. 

34. Prudence as well as valor (is, are) necessary. 

35. Angle A (equal, equals) angle B. 

110 



Exercise 33 

VERBS : TENSE 

The six tenses are Present, Past, Future ; Present 
Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect. (See Ex. 39 for 
conjugation of verb.) Review Ex. 31. 

Besides the simple form of a verb, there are a pro- 
gressive form, an interrogative form, an emphatic 
form, and a negative form. 

Some forms of these follow. Supply the missing 
ones: 

Simple. Progressive. Emphatic. 

I study. I am studying. I do study. 

You study. You are studying. You do study. 

He studies. He is studying. He does study. 

Interrogative. Negative. 

(Progressive) {Emphatic) 

Am I studying? I do not (don't) study. 

Are you studying? You do not (don't) study. 

Is he studying? He does not (doesn't) study. 

The negative form of the verb "to be" is often used 
incorrectly. 

Contracted. Contracted. 

I am not. We are not. We aren't. 

You are not. You aren't. You are not. You aren't. 

He is not. He isn't. He is not. They aren't. 

The word "ain't" is not in good use. It is often used 
incorrectly as a convenient form for each of the above. 
Can you state in grammatical terms why the use of 
"ain't" is an error? 

Learn the forms of verbs in the six tenses. 

This is called giving the conjugation. (See Ex. 34, 
35, and 36 for forms not yet presented.) 

in 



An example of a regular verb and of an irregular 
verb follow, for reference. Be able to give also the 
progressive, emphatic, negative, and interrogative 
forms by comparison with the above. 

Conjugate the following verbs in the tenses or other 
forms asked for: 

Invite, love, ask, see, tell. 

Observe the proper sequence or harmony of tenses, 
as: 

Example: She asked if she might go (not "may 
go"). 

Eevise the following for shift in tense : 

1. She went down the street defiantly and held (not holds) 
her head high. 

2. We should lose all that we have accomplished if we 
changed (not change) leaders now. 

3. When the whistle blew, we all ran (not run) for the fire. 

4. The ranger of the forest cut the claws of the dogs so 
that they could (not can) not catch the deer. 

5. When he returned home, he saw (not sees) everything 
in its place as it used to be. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present. Past. 

Regular Irreg. Regular Irreg. ) Eeg. Irreg. 

I help, see. We help, see. I, We L , , 

You help, see. You help, see. You, You [ nel P ed > saw - 

He helps, sees. They help, see. He, They J 

Future. Present Perfect. 

I shall help, see.We shall help, see. I, We ) , , , 

You will help, see. You will help, see. You, You 1 Jave helped 
He will help, see.They will help, see. He, TheyJ have seen ' 

112 



Past Perfect. Future Perfect. 

I, We had helped. I shall have helped, seen. ) We shall, etc. 

You, You had seen. You will have helped, seen. [ You will, etc. 

He, They He will have helped, seen. J They will, etc. 

Do not use the past tense when the past perfect 
tense is required : 

I wanted to hear all about it, for I had been there myself. 
(Not "I was there.") 

Exercise 34 
VERBS: SHALL AND WILL 
(For Reference or for Advanced Students) 
Careful writers distinguish between the use of 
"shall" and "will." (This is a matter of usage.) 

In indicating simple futurity use the following 
forms : 

I shall. We shall. 

You will. You will. 

He will. They wiU. 

Use in sentences the above with some verb in Ex. 30. 

"Should" and "would/' the past forms of "shall" 
and "will," are used similarly. 

(Note : One cannot will to like anything or to be pleased 
about it. Hence we say, "I shall be glad to see you," not "I 
will be glad to see you.") 

For indicating volition (an act involving the will), 
such as determination, promise, or threat, use the fol- 
lowing : 

I will. We will. 

You shall. You shall. 

He shall. They shall. 

Use the above in sentences with some verbs from 
Ex. 30 after studying and discussing the following : 

113 



1. In questions of the first person usually use "shall." 

In questions of second or third person use same form as 
you expect in the answer. 

2. In indirect statements and indirect questions proceed as 
follows: Determine which form would be used in the direct 
statement. If direct form requires "shall/' use "should"; if 
direct form requires "will," use "would" in the indirect state- 
ment. 

3. In conditional clauses (if) use "should" for all persons. 

4. Miscellaneous. 

"You will go" is a polite form of command. 
"Should" is often used in the original sense of "ought." 
"Would" is frequently used to express habitual action. 

Study the following: 

• 1. I shall be glad to see you to-morrow. 

2. I will come to-morrow at two o'clock. 

3. Shall you go to-morrow? 

4. Will you do this for me ? 

5. I think I shall go for a walk. 

6. They shall not pass. 

7. I will require you to rewrite it' you make one careless 
error. 

8. Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of 

my life 
And I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. 

9. I should like to go to-morrow. 

10. They will begin work on the building next week. 

In the following underline the correct form. Give 
the reason: 

1. I (should, would) like to go. 

2. I (will, shall) be there when you are ready. 

3. You (will, shall) please do as I ask. 

114 



4. (Shall, Will) I find the book there? 

5. It is likely that I (shall, will) be gone before you come. 

6. I (will, shall) not be able to recite to-morrow if I am 
as hoarse as I was after the last game. 

7. Do you think that you (shall, will) be asked to go? 

8. I (shall, will) fall; no one (shall, will) help me. 

9. The man (will, shall) come for the baggage at two 
o'clock.. 

10. If you sit in a draft, you (will, shall) catch cold. 

11. If mail comes for you, (shall, will) I forward it? 

12. (Shall, Will) you be at home to-morrow evening? 

13. I think that I (shall, will) not have to go until Tues- 
day. 

14. We have decided that Monday (will, shall) be assem- 
bly day. 

Exeecise 35 
VERBS: VOICE 
A verb used transitively always has an object. 
(See Ex. 30.) 

If the verb indicates that the doer of the action 
is named by the subject, the verb is in the Active Voice. 
If the subject names that which received the action, 
the verb is in the Passive Voice. 

Every verb is either transitive or intransitive. 
If it is transitive it is in either the active or the 
passive voice. 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

Boer of Receiver Receiver Action 

Action Action of Action of Action 
William read the book. The book was read by 

William. 
The boy broke the window. The window was broken 

by the hoy. 

115 



Make similar changes in the following: 

1. The bee stung the boy. 

2. The farmer planted the potatoes. 

3. The lightning struck the barn. 

Use any form of the following verbs in the active 
voice in sentences: 

Paint, repair, destroy, help, believe, invite, strike, forgive, 
forget, write, tell. 

Change the sentences so that the verbs will be in 
the passive voice. 

The passive voice is formed by combining some 
form of the verb "to be" with the past participle of 
the verb. 

Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish a verb in the 
passive voice from a verb with a predicate adjective. 
(See Ex. 8.) 

1. The boy is conceited. Predicate adjective. 

2. The boy is invited. Verb in passive voice. 

In (1) above, the word "conceited" names no part of the 
action. It expresses an attribute only. 

In the following, state whether the verbs are used 
as transitive verbs in the active voice, as transitive 
verbs in the passive voice, or as intransitive verbs. 
Point out all the complements. (See Ex. 8.) 

1. He was wandering around aimlessly. 

2. While they were waiting, she sharpened her pencil. 

3. The new book was reviewed by the president of the 
club. 

4. The clouds were fleecy. 

5. Mathematics is an interesting study. 

6. Can you drive an automobile ? 

116 



7. The city was destroyed by the earthquake. 

8. Carthage must be destroyed. 

9. The wheat was harvested by the college students. 

10. The government preserves the forests. 

11. Thousands of people annually visit our National Parks. 

12. You are requested to send replies. 

13. The whole family enjoyed the game of golf. 

Exercise 36 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS "HELP" AND "SEE" 

IN PASSIVE VOICE 

(Chiefly for Reference) 
(See Ex. 33 for conjugation of verb in active voice.) 
Present. Past. 

I am, We are, 1 I was, We were, 

You are, You are, | helped. You were, You were, [ helped, 
He is, They are, J seen. He was, They were, J seen. 

Future. Present Perfect. 

I, We, shall be 1 I, We, have been 1 

You, You, will be [ helped. You, You, have been | helped. 
He, They, will be J seen. He has, They, have been J seen. 

Past Perfect. Future Perfect. 

I, We, had been I, We, shall have been 

You, You, had been \ helped. You, You, will have been helped. 
He, They, had been J seen. He, They, will have been J seen. 

Do not use the passive voice unnecessarily. 

The play was enjoyed by me. Improved: I enjoyed the 
play. 

Exercise 36 
VERBS: MOOD 
The differences in the form of a verb to show how 
the thought is stated or presented are known as Moods 
or Modes. 

117 



A verb that makes a statement in a positive man- 
ner, as if it were a fact, or that asks a question directly, 
is said to be in the Indicative Mood. 

A verb that expresses a command or an entreaty 
is said to be in the Imperative Mood. The subject of 
the verb is always in the second person, but it is not 
expressed except for emphasis or contrast. 

A verb that states a thought as uncertain or sup- 
posed or merely thought of, usually in the expression 
of a wish or unreal condition, is said to be in the Sub- 
junctive Mood. 

In only two tenses is there a difference in form 
because of the Subjunctive Mood. 

Present. Past. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. Indicative. Subjunctive. 

I am, go. (If) I be, go. I was. (If) I were. 

You are, go. You be, go. You were. You were. 

He is, goes. He be, go. He was. He were. 

Write five sentences with verbs in the indicative 
mood. Change the sentences so that the verbs will be 
in the imperative mood and in the subjunctive mood. 

The subjunctive mood is used in English chiefly in 
clauses of (1) purpose, (2) result, (3) indirect ques- 
tion, (4) noun clauses, (5) time clauses, (6) conditional 
clauses, and (7) concessive clauses. 

It occurs most frequently in expressing a wish or 
condition contrary to Tact: 

Would I were a good student. 

If I were a good student, I should not have to study so 
hard. 

Point out the mood of all the verbs in Ex. 2, 13, 
and 39. 

118 



Exeecise 37 

VERBALS 

Certain words called "verbals" have some qualities 
of verbs. They are non-model forms. 

As they do not assert, they are not true verbs. 
Three kinds of verbals are (a) infinitives (usually "to" 
with the root of the verb, (b) gerunds (infinitives in 
"ing"), and (c) participles (verbal adjectives). 

Infinitives and gerunds are like verbs in that they 
are derived from verbs, they express action, they may 
take the modifiers of verbs, and they may have objects. 
They are not true verbs, because they do not assert. 
Infinitives are often used as nouns. See exercise below. 

They may also be used to modify or complete the 
meaning of verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

A. INFINITIVES 

The sign of the infinitive is spelled "to." It is 
always followed by a verb. It should not be confused 
with the preposition "to" which is always accompanied 
by a substantive as its object. 

The "to" is understood in such sentences as 
Let him (to) go. 
You may (have permission) (to) go. 

It is considered better form usually to avoid the 
so-called "split infinitive." (Example: "to usually 
avoid.") Watch for this construction. Note where it 
seems permissible and where it seems objectionable. 

The perfect infinitive ("to have" with verb) should be 
used only if the action expressed is complete at the time indi- 
cated by the main verb : 

He was to have gone. 

119 



The perfect infinitive is used with- "ought" to express 
obligation : 

He ought to have gone. 
Sometimes the verb has a direct object followed by 
an infinitive of which it is the subject. The whole 
expression may be considered the object of the verb. 
The subject of the infinitive is in the objective case 1 : 
He believed him to be me. 

The substantive following the ''to be" is in the same 
case as its subject. 

Some ways in which an infinitive may be used are 
as follows: 

1. Subject of verb: To do one's best is a duty. 

2. Predicate nominative : Her hobby is to crochet. 

3. Direct object : I like to swim. 

4. Object of preposition : Nothing remained but to go 

ahead. 

5. Appositive: His purpose, to lead the class, 

was accomplished. 

6. Adjective : He had a problem to solve. 

7. Adverb : He called to invite you to dinner. 

(Often an infinitive phrase is equivalent to a clause: 
We wished him to go = We wished that he would go.) 

8. Predicative: We saw the keeper (to) feed the 

animals. 

B. GERUNDS 

The gerund is a verbal derived from a verb by add- 
ing "ing" to its root and used as a noun. Like a verb, 
it may have a direct object and adverbial modifiers. 

Running the race was fun. 
120 



It is like the present participle in form but differs 
from it in use. The gerund is always used as a sub- 
stantive and the participle is always used as an adjec- 
tive. 

The boy throwing the ball fell. Participle. 

His throwing the ball caused the accident. Gerund. 

The gerund may have the following uses. See if 
you can add others. 

1. Subject of verb : Running is good exercise. 

2. Object of verb : We practised throwing the ball. 

3. Object of preposition: There is a trick in pitching a 

curve. 

A noun or pronoun used with a gerund to modify it is 
usually in the possessive case. (See Ex. 21.) 

C. PARTICIPLES 

The participle is a word derived from a verb and 
used as an adjective. Review the ways participles are 
formed in Ex. 31. Master the rules in spelling in- 
volved. 

A participle may be used in all the relations that 
an adjective may. (See Ex. 28.) A participle may 
be attached to a noun in the nominative absolute con- 
struction : 

The puncture having been repaired, we proceeded on our 
way. 

With an auxiliary a participle may form a verb 
phrase. It cannot stand alone as a verb. (See Ex. 1 
and Ex. 40.) 

A participial phrase may be loosely attached to the 
subject or a noun or pronoun in the objective case. 

121 



Notes : 

A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is 
followed by a comma. 

Loosely attached (descriptive or non-restrictive) parti- 
cipial phrases are set off by commas. Closely attached (de- 
terminative or restrictive phrases) are not. 

Participles and participial phrases should be placed as 
near the words they modify as possible. 

Find examples of all the above in your clippings. 

REVIEW OF VERBALS 

Discuss the following: 



1. I like to run. 



2. Running is good 

exercise. 

3. Running down hill, 

he stumbled and 
fell. 

4. C o m p 1 e tely run 

down, he had to 
rest. 

5. I am running. 



6. His specialty is 
run fast. 
I enjoy running. 



to 



Infinitive. 



Gerund. 

Present Par- 
ticiple. 

Participle. 



Part of verb 

phrase. 
Infinitive. 



Object of verb (or 
of preposition 
"for" under- 
stood). 

Subject of verb 
"is." 

Adjective modify- 
ing "he." 

Adjective modify- 
ing "he." 



7. 



Gerund. 



of 



Predicate n 

inative. 
Direct object 
verb "enjoy." 

Add other constructions of verbals from your clippings. 
In the following point out all verbals and all words 
ending in "ing." Are they used as substantives or as 
modifiers? Give their construction. 

1. To prepare well is the best plan. 

2. Tossed about by the waves, he finally reached shore. 

3. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

122 



4. She ran gaily about, gathering flowers here and there. 

5. The flag is fluttering in the breeze. 

6. We ran to greet her. 

7. Sleeping late is a bad practice. 

8. The brothers were very fond of ice skating. 

9. He didn't do well in the beginning. 

10. Destiny has a queer way of throwing people together. 

11. After receiving full instructions, we left for the audi- 
torium. 

12. The actions of a blowing adder were described. 

13. Lastly the writer describes the blind groping of nature 
in many different cases. 

14. Roosevelt's "African Game Trails" describes very 
clearly the capturing of different wild animals. 

15. Dickens strenuously opposed hazing. 

16. Paul Dombey is a pitiful example of the effect cram- 
ming often has on children. 

17. A charming little watch was ticking away on her wrist. 

18. I think Mr. Warner has good eyes, for he tells of see- 
ing a town twenty miles away. 

Some difficult constructions of infinitive phrases 
and other verbals may be explained in various ways. 

Study the following and add other odd construc- 
tions as you meet them. Point out all the verbals. 

1. They wanted to see you. 

2. He caught them opening the window. " 

3. We expect her to answer immediately. 

4. To do is not so easy as to say what it is good to do. 

5. It is too warm for us to study. 

6. The captain being thoroughly informed, we thought 
it best to rely on his judgment. 

123 



7. She is not the girl I believed her to be. 

8. We hold these institutions of government, religion, and 
learning, to be transmitted, as well as enjoyed. 

9. The gong having sounded, we went in to dinner. 

10. I expected him to be there. 

11. The success was due to their looking ahead. 

12. It is time for us to do something about correcting our 
English. 

13. I believed this to be true. 

14. It is never too late to turn over a new leaf. 

15. Let me work in peace. 

16. That was a new thought to consider. 

17. They thought of nothing but to make a good appear- 
ance. 

Observe parallelism of structure in using infinitives 
and gerunds. 

"Seeing is believing," not "Seeing is to believe." 

Avoid the use of (1) the dangling participle, (2) 
the dangling infinitive, and (3) the dangling phrase. 

Correct. Incorrect. 

1. He saw sitting ahead of him Sitting ahead of him, he 

a woman with three chil- saw a woman with three 

dren. children. 

2. In order to get the full To get the full benefit out 

benefit Out of the treat- of the treatment, it 

ment, it should be repeated should be repeated sev- 

several times. eral times. 

3. The cake fell while it was In taking the cake out, it 

being taken out. fell. 

(See also Ex. 40.) 

124 



Exercise 38 

VERBS: TROUBLESOME FORMS 

The forms of "lie" and "lay," "sit" and "set," "rise" 
and "raise," etc., often give trouble. The confusion in 
the first two is due partly to the fact that the present 
tense of "lay" has the same form as the past tense of 
the verb "lie." 

Review Ex. 30 and 31. 

A help in learning the correct form of the following 
is to notice that in each set of the above, one is transi- 
tive and the other intransitive. 

Study the following. 

Impera- Principal Parts. Present 
tive. Pres. Past. Past Par. Part. 
Lie = To rest on or re- lie lie lay lain lying 
cline. 
Always intransi- 
tive. 
Lay = To place or put. lay lay laid laid laying 
Always transi- 
tive. 
Sit = To rest. sit sit sat sat sitting 

Always intransi- 
tive. 
Set = To put or place, set set set set setting 
Always transitive 
except in id- 
ioms as in "The 
sun sets." 

Distinguish also between "rise" and "raise," 
"learn" and "teach." 

Use all of the above in sentences in all the forms 
indicated. Underline and classify. 

125 



EXAMPLES 

1. I always lie down in the afternoon. 

2. Sport is lying on the rug. 

3. The child lay on the sofa. 

4. The bones of Shakespeare have lain undisturbed for 
many years. 

5. Sarah laid the books on the table. 

6. Rover, lie down. 

7. She was laying the dish down when it slipped from 
her hands. 

8. I found the book lying on the stair. 

9. The city was wonderfully laid out. 

10. Lay it down. 

11. Where does the village lie? 

12. Let the book lie where it is. 

13. Sit in this rocking chair. 

14. Please set the table. 

15. I was sitting in the living room. 

16. I cannot raise the window. 

17. I like to sit by the window. 

18. Let the bread rise slowly. 

19. Wake me at six o'clock. 

20. When did you awake ? 

Justify the use of "lie" and "lay" in the f olio wing : 

"Under the wide and starry sky, 
Dig the grave and let me lie ; 
Glad did I live and gladly die 
And I lay me down with a will. 
This be the verse you grave for me, 
'Here he lies where he longed to be ; 
Home is the sailor, home from the sea, 
And the hunter home from the hill/ " 

Stevenson. 

126 



Select the correct form. Justify your choice. 

1. The guns are (lie) on the battlefield. 

2. After I had (lie) down for an hour, I felt rested. 

3. She told her sister to go and (lie) down. 

4. Has the coat been (lie) there long? 

5. The American Indians would (lie) behind bushes. 

6. Peanut shells were (lie) all around. 

7. He (lay) the apple on the plate and it still (lie) there. 

8. He (lay) the mattress on the ground. There the 
soldiers (lie). 

9. (Lie) down, Laddie Boy. 

10. I found the book (lie) on the stair. 

Exercise 39 
REVIEW OF VERBS 

Have a committee gather illustrations of errors in 
the form and uses of verbs and make a report. 

The following will suggest some common ones : 

Don't, doesn't; can, may; shall, will; leave, let; affect, 
effect; accept, except; teach, learn; lie, lay; lend, borrow; 
bring, take; fix, repair; rear, raise. 

Bring in examples of correct uses of these words. 

Avoid the use of: 

"I have got," for "I have." 

"To make dinner," for "To prepare dinner." 

"To fix the hair," for "To dress the hair." 

127 



In the following select the correct form. Give the 
reason. 

1. He (ain't, isn't) coming. 

2. It (don't, doesn't) make (no, any) difference. 

3. (Its, it's) (to, too) bad there (don't, doesn't) seem to 
be enough time to dress for gym. 

4. (Ain't, isn't) it hard to speak correctly? 

5. "We (were, was) only playing. 

6. I (ask, asked) Mother if I might go. 

7. His ears had been (froze, frozen). 

8. Then he (begun, began) to ask questions. 

9. The books haven't (come, came) yet. 

10. At nine o'clock the bell (rang, rung). 

11. The band was (lead, led) by a student. 

12. I could (of gone, have gone) if I had wanted to. 

13. They (saw, seen) him when he (did, done) it. 

14. He (says, said) that he had (ask, asked) his mother. 

15. The horses (run, ran) away yesterday. 

16. You surely (was, were) mistaken. 

17. Lamb's "Tales" (are, is) a good book. 

18. He hasn't (drink, drunk) the milk yet. 

19. Fifty dollars (is, are) too much for that. 

20. I (shall, will) be glad to have you call. 

21. I (hadn't ought, ought not) go out yet. 

22. I didn't know you (was, were) there. 

23. If I (was, were) he, I'd go. 

24. One of the men (is, are) his father. 

25. (Can, May) I borrow your book? 

26. I had expected (to go, to have gone), too. (See Ex. 
37.) 

128 



Point out peculiarities among the following verbs 
or comment on the construction : 

1. He shall go. 

2. He dare not go. 

3. He need not go. 

4. Methinks it is a ghost of yesteryear. 

5. He wist not where he stood. 

6. Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." 

7. Arthur's sword was hight Excalibur. 

8. He is gone. They were come. 

9. His friends did him an injustice. 

10. I did not see him. 

11. Have you read the lesson? 

12. I have a new car. 

13. She says that she may go Avith me. 

14. She said that she might go. 

15. May we ask him to come ? 

16. Can you analyze all the sentences? 

17. I want to go, too ; may I ? 

18. May I borrow your pencil? 

19. The water is gradually rising. 

20. At Grand View the Colorado River can be seen seven- 
teen miles away. 

21. I must have been mistaken. 

22. Have you ever seen him before? 

23. I do like to go fishing. 

24. What did you do next? 

25. "Whom does she resemble? 

26. I am reading an interesting book. 

129 



Point out all the verbs. Give all the grammatical 
facts about them. 

(1) Home is a beautiful refuge. (2) Though the storms 
may rattle and bang at the windows, though the wind whistle 
and moan about the corners, and though the rain beat fu- 
riously upon the roof, yet we feel safe within the fold of home. 
(3) When night comes, what pleasure it does give us to look 
about at those who have made it a home ; when morning dawns 
what happiness to know that those we shall always love are 
still in the home. (4) Too often we sit in the family circle, 
not vividly conscious of this peace and contentment ; too often 
we lie down at night without thankfulness for the comfort and 
the coziness of it all. (5) Indeed, a few seek to fly from it 
all. (6) But, once away from it, how we miss it! (7) For 
home means more than house; it is the noblest symbol of 
earthly love. 

Exercise 40 

THE CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN SENTENCE 
STRUCTURE 

Review Ex. 1. After you have studied verbs it 
should be clearer than it was before that a participle 
is not a verb. A group of words must have a subject 
and a predicate in order to form a sentence, and it 
must express a complete thought. A clause standing 
alone with a connecting word (conjunctive adverb or 
subordinating conjunction) is not a sentence. It be- 
longs with the preceding expression. A detached 
phrase of any kind is not a sentence. 

Revise the following and explain in grammatical 
terms the changes you made: 

1. I can't go, I'm too tired. 

2. He shouted, "Stop where you are, the train is coming." 

3. The clock stopped, he did not know how long he had 
been there. 

130 



4. Rob, you're such a tease, I'm angry at you. 

5. We have a very fine gymnasium for dancing, in fact 
we should not want anything better. 

The above error may be corrected in a number of 
ways. 

1. A new sentence may be I can't go. I'm too tired. 

formed : 

2. A semicolon may separate I can't go ; I'm too tired. 

the independent clauses : 

3. A co-ordinate conjunction I can't go, for I'm too tired. 

may be used : 

Correct the following: 

1. He slept out-of-doors. Which was very healthful. 
(Corrected: He slept out-of-doors, which was very healthful.) 

2. He was also very unselfish, as many incidents in the 
story showed. Among them being the rescue of Quintus 
Arrius. Who afterward adopted him. 

3. He made forty-five errors in grammar. Which he can 
learn to correct by studying. 

4. He was dropped from the team. Since he was always 
getting hurt through carelessness. 

5. There are two ways of writing a composition. The 
first by making a careful plan. The other by writing rapidly 
and revising according to an outline made later. 

6. Many city boys like to go to the country. The reason 
being that they enjoy work out-of-doors. 

7. There are four ways to travel through the Garden of 
the Gods. 

8. That material is the best. It being the only kind that 
won't fade. 

9. He finally agreed to try. Which was all that we were 
after. 

131 



10. We finished making a draft of the constitution. 
Although we worked two hours longer than we had ex- 
pected to. 

SHIFT IN SENTENCE PLAN, AND MISCEL- 
LANEOUS 

To correct an error due to shift in sentence plan, 
see that reference is unmistakable. Any shift in sub- 
ject means complete recasting of the sentence. Do 
not omit words necessary to make the grammatical 
construction clear. Put words, phrases, and clauses 
nearest the words they modify. 

Correct the following after discussing some of them 
in class. Have a committee gather similar errors and 
make a report. 

1. On entering the station my friend met me. 

2. Sliding down the bannisters, my grandmother caught 
me. 

3. He was lame, due to spinal meningitis. 

4. While in the corridor, a loud shout was heard. 

5. Her eyes were dark and when angry they glinted. 

6. When young, her mother and father lived in a small 
house. 

7. Being the youngest in the family, Gareth's mother kept 
him at home. 

8. Being as he knew better he ought to be penalized. 

9. What I care most about she never lets us know she's 
coming. 

10. In talking to Helen, she said that she would enter the 
contest. 

11. You must not eat the dessert until well chilled. 

12. I shall always love my school because of the good 
training and the delightful friends I made there. 

132 



13. I met many people whose names I had heard but didn't 
know them personally. 

14. Having boiled the water, it was perfectly safe to drink. 

15. The thing that makes me provoked, they say that they 
will begin on time and then don't do it. 

16. We met a boy from our school and who had lived in 
our neighborhood. 

17. It is an interesting book and which will give you a 
great deal of information. 

18. The shades can be rolled up when sweeping, pulling 
them out of the way of dust. 

19. When cleaning house, the shades can be put away. 

20. He is working two days a week is all. 

21. The last time Ivanhoe and the Templar meet is when 
Rebecca being accused of being a sorceress she demands a 
champion. 

22. When Wamba and Gurth and Locksley gather the men 
together and plan to besiege the castle is one instance of fore- 
shadowing. 

23. I liked his brother better than he. 

24. We like Cooper as well as Scott. 

25. We only like fresh lobster. 

26. Wanted : boy to deliver oysters that can ride a bicycle. 
Punctuate the following correctly. Underline the 

parts where you made changes. State in grammatical 
terms the changes you made. 

1. A distant jay screeched then one nearby answered and 
immediately flew off to meet his fellow. 

2. When the boys finally listened to him he continued in 
a rather apologetic and embarrassed tone you know I have 
a Sammy Backer in America well he told me to write to him 
after I got over here and tell him what I needed and he would 
send it in my Christmas box. 

133 



3. I'm going camping do you want to go with me it'll be 
loads of fun. 

4. As Ulysses sailed on he came in sight of an island he 
landed and started inland he soon came to a cave. 

5. The cheers were given with a will followed by three for 
Jack then the little party set out on its Christmas mission. 

6. Two men crossed a little bridge and then tried to break 
down the gate one of these men could use the battle ax very 
well he was dressed in black armor. 

7. Just then some arrows struck his armor first one 
struck and glanced off the next did the same as the first. 

8. He did not have time to roll the rock off because his 
attention was turned to the man who was shooting the arrows 
the man was Locksley. 

9. Turn him loose there's no danger of losing him. 

10. I like Burroughs 's work very much he just makes you 
see Nature in his way I like his contrasts very much he con- 
trasts the English wood life with the American. 

11. Some of the shelves were empty others had old jars 
and bottles on them. 

12. One of the men had been disobedient and John had 
given him a beating the man died afterward some of the peo- 
ple blamed John. 

13. The funds were low Congress didn't like it at first 
finally they agreed to do it. 

14. One day Robin Hood happened to meet a tall man 
about seven feet in height his name was Little John. 

15. We had to wait for a while this was not what we 
expected. . . 

Exeecise 41 
ADVERBS 

An adverb is a word limiting or modifying a verb 
or an adjective or a modifier of a verb or of an adjec- 
tive. It may also modify a verbal. 

134 



(For reference only and for class discussion.) 
Kinds of Adverbs : 



As to meaning. 

Time: 
Place : 
Manner : 
Degree 
Cause: 
Assertion, 

Affirmative : 

Negative : 
Concession : 

As to use. 

Limiting. 

Modifying chiefly 
Verbs, 
Adjectives, 
Adverbs. 

Conjunctive : 



Then came Pyramus. 
Come here. 
Move quickly. 
He is very tall. 
Why are you going ? 

Yes, you may go. 
No, I can't help you. 
Nevertheless, it could have been 
prevented. 



Expletive : 
As to form. 
Simple : 

Flexional : 

Phrasal : 

Comparison. 



Where, whence, how, why, when 
they are used to connect depend- 
ent clauses to the main clause. 

There are five of us in the club. 

One word, as now, so, often, quite, 

very. 
An ending showing that they are 

adverbs, as in slowly. 
One by one, in order that, as soon 

as, as long as, etc. 

With "-er," "-est," or "more" and "most." 
Look up the irregular forms in your Grammar. 



Write sentences containing each kind of adverb. 
Underline and label for kind, use, or form, as directed. 



135 



Select sentences containing twenty adverbs from 
your clippings. Label each. By use of dictionary see 
if you can select better ones in their place. Point out 
what word each modifies. If it is difficult to tell, repeat 
the adverb with each word until you reach the one with 
which it belongs. What part of speech does each 
modify? 

Find illustrations of the following in your own 
themes. Correct them. Bring to class illustrations of 
the correct constructions from your clippings. 

CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN THE USE OF 
ADVERBS 

1. A common error in the use of the adverb is to 
omit the sign of the adverb "ly" in words in which 
it is required to distinguish them from adjectives. 

He went slowly. (Not slow.) 

He breathed heavily. (Not heavy.) 

Do it quickly. (Not quick.) 

2. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs. 

Incorrect : 
I slept well. I slept good. 

I was very tired. I was real tired. 

We were almost through. We were most through. 

He had already gone. He had all ready gone. 

That surely was good pie. That sure was good pie. 

I was exceedingly happy. I was so happy. 

They spoke very distinctly. They spoke quite distinctly. 

(Meaning, to a degree.) 

3. An adverb should not be used in place of an 
adjective as a predicate complement. (See Ex. 30.) 
Example : 

She looked beautiful. (Not beautifully.) 
136 



4. A word ending in "ly" is not always an adverb. 
It may be an adjective. It is always what a word 
modifies that determines whether it is an adjective 
or an adverb. Example: 

What a friendly person she is. (Adjective.) 

5. Place an adverb nearest the word it modifies. 
Be careful about the position of "only," "not," "also," 
etc. Example : 

I had only a few dollars, not, I only had a few dollars. 

Not all men are honest, not, All men are not honest. 

We want to show you pictures also, not, We also want to 
show you pictures. 

6. The adverb "too" is different in form from the 
adjective "two" and from "to" used as a preposition 
or as the sign of the infinitive. Example : 

The paper is too dark, not, to dark. 

(By actual count this error has been found in some experi- 
ments to be the most common error in ordinary high school 
composition.) 

7. Avoid the use of the double negative. 

Incorrect : 
I have no book. . I haven't no book. 

(Still worse, "I ain't got no 
book.") 
I could hardly see. I couldn't hardly see. 

I couldn't see anything. I couldn't see nothing. 

He didn't give me any. He didn't give me none. 

I didn't see anything. I didn't see nothing. 

8. Do not substitute a noun for an adverb. 

He went somewhere. Incorrect : He went some place. 

9. Distinguish between "so" and "as." 

She is as tall as her sister, but not so tall as her brother. 

137 



Exercise 42 
ADVERBS (Continued) 

Adverbs are either limiting, as when they merely 
modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, or the modifiers 
of these; or conjunctive, when they introduce depen- 
dent clauses. 

A conjunctive adverb expresses an adverbial idea 
and connects a subordinate clause with a word in the 
principal clause. (See Ex. 11.) It may introduce an 
adverbial clause or a noun clause. 

Some of the conjunctive adverbs are as follows : 
When, where, whence, how, as, as if, while, until, before, 

after, since, though, although, because, as soon as, as long as, 

in order that, lest, provided. 

Write sentences using the above as conjunctive 
adverbs. 

Conjunctive adverbs may introduce clauses indi- 
cating time, place, manner, cause, concession, etc. 

EEVIEW 

Fill in the following blanks with the correct form, 
"to," "too," or "two" : 

1. They wanted do their best. 

2. There are many people in the class. 

3. In the front yard were elm trees. 

4. It's ——— early to go home. 

5. many cooks spoil the broth. 

6. I, , wish to go. 

7. I like it here, 

8. That pencil is hard. 

9. You are in much of a hurry do your 

best. 

138 



Exercise 43 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND 
ADVERBS 

A. Comparison of Adjectives. 

(See Exercise 28.) 

In comparison do not use the superlative degree in 
comparing two. Do not use both the suffix and the 
adverbs more and most with the same word. 

Some adjectives really should not be compared, such as 
perfect, absolute, round, fundamental, square, preferable, 
unique. 

An exact statement would be as follows : 

This rose is more nearly perfect than that one, not, 

This' rose is more perfect than that one. 

Avoid confusing "as" and "than'' in expressions of 
comparison. 

He was larger than any other boy. (Not larger as.) 

He was as great as if not greater than his father. (The 
second "as" should not be omitted.) 

B. Comparison of Adverbs. 

Adverbs, like adjectives, have three degrees of com- 
parison : 



Positive : 
Comparative : 
Superlative : 




fast 

faster 

fastest 




quickly 
more quickly 
most quickly 




Look up 


the 


list of 


irregular 


adverbs in 


your 



Grammar. 

The word "awfully" is frequently used in place of 
"very" or "exceedingly." 

Select the correct form in the following. Are the 
words used as adjectives or as adverbs? 

139 



1. Can't you be (quieter, more quiet) ? 

2. Which do you think was (easier, more easily) done? 

3. Come on girls ! Let's see if we can dress (plainer, more 
plainly) and (neater, more neatly). 

4. Which is the (best, better) road, this one or that one? 

5. Which is the (harder, hardest), Latin or algebra? 

6. Cassius was the (most, more) practical of the two. 

Exercise 44 
EEVIEW OF ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB 

Select the correct form. Tell which w r ord each 
modifies and whether it is an adjective or an adverb. 

1. You do not read (distinct, distinctly) enough. 

2. Do not treat the boy so (harshly, harsh). 

3. How (quick, quickly) do you think you can go on this 
errand for me? 

4. The boy (nearly, near) fell over. 

5. They (sure, surely) treated him (roughly, rough). 

6. I didn't sleep (well, good) last night. 

7. My pen (doesn't, don't) write (good, well). 

8. This thread is (real, very) fine. 

9. I am (most, almost) through. 

10. The captain was (very, real) good to him. 

11. He came up and grabbed him (quick, quickly). 

12. Although he (most, almost) always studies hard, he 
is never perfect in spelling. 

13. We were (all ready, already) to go. 

14. I have (all ready, already) attended to that. 

15. We (sure, surely) had a (real, very) good time. 

140 



16. Are you going to be there? I (sure, surely) am. 

17. They are (very, so) glad that we came. 

18. The flowers smelled (sweet, sweetly). 

19. The shoes looked (bad, badly). (Look up usage on 
this point in your clippings. Is it better to use a different 
adverb?) 

20. She looked (so, very) pretty. 

21. We were (quite, very) happy. 

22. She looked (beautifully, beautiful) that evening. 

23. Her friend was (quite, very) indignant. 

24. The car went (to, too) (slow, slowly) for me. 

25. I wish I could go (somewhere, some place) this sum- 
mer. 

26. I never had (any, none). 

27. The play was (to, too) funny for anything. 

28. He (couldn't, could) hardly speak. 

29. The boy came forward very (bold, boldly). 

30. He doesn't talk very (clear, clearly). 

31. Do you think that she sang (good, well) ? 

32. I did not know that you could write so (bad, badly). 

33. My pen doesn't always write (good, well) but it (sure, 
surely) is useful. 

34. He didn't do it as (good, well) as he could. 

35. The place seemed very (strange, strangely) to him. 

36. She looked (prettily, pretty) in her cap and gown. 

37. She sang as (good, well) as any of you. 

38. One should always treat animals (kind, kindly). 

39. The motor doesn't work (good, well). 

40. Her voice sounded very (sweetly, sweet). 

41. He came (near, nearly) falling into the river. 

141 



Exercise 45 

THE PREPOSITION 

A preposition is a word that expresses the relation 
between a substantive (its object) and some other part 
of the sentence. 

Prepositions are usually very short words, but it 
is difficult to learn to use the correct ones to express 
exact shades of meaning in all cases. 

KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS 

(For Reference) 

Simple : At, after, by, down, ere, for, from, in, of, 

off, over, till, to, up, with, but. 
Derivative: About, above, against, beneath, into, 

throughout, toward, underneath, upon, 
within, without. 
From adverbs: Across, amid, amidst, among, amongst, 
From nouns or around, below, besides, betwixt, be- 

adjectives : tween. 

^~ From verbs : During, except, past, save, notwith- 

standing, concerning. 
Phrasal : 

Combined with In front of, out of, according to, along- 
other preposi- side of, because of, instead of, in re- 
tions : spect to, in regard to. 

Use each of the above in a sentence as a prepo- 
sition. 

Point out its object and tell what the phrase modi- 
fies. Tell whether the phrase is used as an adjective 
or as an adverb. 

Distinguish carefully between the following: 

In, into; accept, except; past, passed; off of, from; be- 
tween (two), among (more than two) ; to, at; by, with; dif- 
ferent (from, to, than). 

142 



Which are incorrect? What kind of speech is each 
usually? Use correctly in a sentence each one that 
is a correct expression. Use as many as possible in 
sentences as prepositions. Point out the objects. 
What do the phrases modify? Are they used as adjec- 
tives or as adverbs? 

Notes : 

1. Usually, but not always, it is best not to end a sentence 
with a preposition. 

2. Many prepositions can be used in sentences as 
adverbs. Note that the preposition always has an 
object. The object of the preposition is always in the 
objective case. Eeview Ex. 21. 

The child fell out. 
The cat wants to get in. 

3. Do not omit the preposition in such sentences as 
the following: 

Washington was born on the twenty-second of February. 

I slept at home. 

It's of no use to try that plan. 

4. Prepositions are sometimes used unnecessarily. 
He fell off (of) the swing. 

The table is (in) back of the door. 

Where are we (at) ? 

Where is she going (to) ? 

She is a girl (of) from ten to twelve years of age. 

See if you can add others to this list. 

5. Do not use "and" in place of "to" as the sign of 
the infinitive. 

I'll try to (not "and") do better. 

143 



Do not use "of" for "have." 

I would have (not "of") gone if I had known it. 

"But" is sometimes a preposition. It means "ex- 
cept." Its object is in the objective case. 

y. None went but me. 

6. The object of a preposition is not always a noun. 

I did not know until later. (Adverb.) 

I cannot say for certain. (Adjective.) 

He will not leave until after the election. (Phrase.) 

Don't speak of what you have heard. (Clause.) 

They quarreled over who would be his successor. (Here 
the whole clause is the object of the preposition "over." 
"Who" is in the nominative case, subject of "would be." It 
is not the object of the preposition, but the whole clause of 
which it is the subject is the object of the preposition.) 

Exeecise 46 

CONJUNCTIONS 

Conjunctions are words used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses. 

KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS 

Co-ordinate : and, but, for, or, nor. 

Subordinate : unless, because, if, though, although, 

lest, as, whether. 
Correlative : either-or, neither-nor, both-and, whether- 

or, not only-but also, so-that, as-as, 

so-as, such-as. 
Phrasal : as if, as though, as sure as, in case that, 

in order that, provided that, so that, 

inasmuch as. 

144 



Subordinate conjunctions may introduce the following 
kinds of dependent clauses : 

Time: after, as, before, since, ere, until, while. 

Cause or Eeason : as, because, since, whereas, etc. 

Condition: if, except, unless, provided, so. 

Concession: though, although, albeit, notwithstand- 
ing. 

Purpose or Result: that, lest, (so) that, (in order) that, etc. 

Comparison: as, than. 

Introducing Noun that, whether. 
Clause : 

Use each of the above words in sentences as con- 
junctions or select examples from your clippings. 
Underline and label them. 

"And" and "and so" are co-ordinate conjunctions. 

Frequently "so" is used where "and so" should be 
used or the construction changed. 

Usage with regard to "so" differs. Look it up. 
Study the usage of the best writers and speakers. 

"As our mother called us, we turned back" is better 
than "Our mother called us ; so we turned back." 

"Unless" is a conjunction. The prepositions "ex- _. 
cept" and "without" are sometimes incorrectly used in 
its place. 

"I can't go unless you do." (Not "without" or 
"except.") 

"Than" and "as" are conjunctions, not preposi- 
tions. 

"He is taller than I" = "He is taller than I am tall." 
("am tall" is understood.) 

Distinguish between "so as" and "so that." 

145 



"I sat in front so that I could hear him." (Not "so 
as I could hear him.") 

Use "either" with "or" and "neither" with "nor." 

"Neither James nor I went," (Not "neither James 
or I.") 

Use "either" or "neither" in speaking of two. For 
more than two use "any of them," or "none of them," 
or "no." 

The preposition "like" cannot be used in place of 
the conjunctions "as" or "as if." 

"It looks as if you are studying." (Not "it looks 
like.") 

"Do as I do." (Not "like I do.") 

"That" is a conjunction when it introduces a noun 
clause. 

"That all was well, we could see at a glance." 

"But what" is incorrect as a conjunction. When 
"what" = "that which," it is a relative pronoun. Use 
"but that." 

"I do not doubt but that it is true." (Not "I do 
not doubt but what it is true.") 

When an alternative is implied, use "whether" and 
not "if." 

"I don't know whether I'll go." (Not "I don't know 
if I'll go.") 

Study these forms in your clippings. Which forms 
do the best speakers and writers use? 

146 



Exercise 47 

CONJUNCTIONS: "LIKE" AND "AS," ETC. 

Select the correct form. Underline it. Give reason 
for your choice. 

1. It looks (like, as if) it had been swept with a brush. 

2. I don't seem to be able to write (like, as) my sister can. 

3. It looks (like, as if) it would snow to-morrow. 

4. I wish I could play the piano (as, like) Sister does. 

5. It looks (like, as if) it was fifty miles away. 

6. He is taller (as, than) his mother. 

7. We went early (so that, so as) we could get good seats. 

8. I can't go (without, unless) you give me permission. 

9. I like Dickens, but I think that Thackeray is even 
more interesting than (him, he). 

10. People don't study spelling now (like, as) they used to. 

11. It is neither green (or, nor) blue. 

12. No one will miss the old home (like, as) I shall. 

13. In some respects Stevenson writes (as, like) Kipling 
does. 

14. I don't know but (that, what) I'll go after all. 

15. I don't know (as, that) I care. 

16. The man looks (like, as if) he had been an actor. 

17. He doesn't study (like, as) he used to. 

18. There is no use going (except, unless) they act dif- 
ferently. 

19. I felt (like, as if) it was almost useless to try again. 

20. It looks (like, as if) they weren't coming. 

21. It looks (like, as if) he ought to know better. 

147 



Exercise 48 

EEVIEW OF CONNECTIVES 

Connectives include 
Verbs : Linking. 
Conjunctions : 

Co-ordinate. 
Subordinate. 
Prepositions. 
Eelative Pronouns. 
Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Which of these connect expressions of equal rank? 
Of unequal rank? 

Give examples of each in sentences. 

Eeview each of the above. 

In such exercises as 13, or any of the Review Exer- 
cises, point out all the connectives and give their con- 
struction. 

Exercise 49 

CONTRACTIONS 

An apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of 
a letter or letters. A contraction does not require a 
period at the close as an abbreviation does. 

Most contractions are used only in colloquial ex- 
pressions. In dignified composition, they are used 
chiefly in the quoting of conversation. 

Some errors in grammar occur in the improper use 
of contractions. Commonly used contractions are the 
following : 

It's, isn't, don't, didn't, couldn't, you're, they're, 
who's, doesn't, haven't, shan't, shouldn't, where's, 
won't. 

148 



Be sure that the apostrophe is placed where the 
letter or letters are omitted. 

Eemember that no personal pronoun in the pos- 
sessive case is written with an apostrophe. 

In "couldn't," "didn't," etc., what parts of speech 
are combined? 

Add to the above list of contractions such as you 
use or hear used most frequently. Use them in sen- 
tences. 

Aren't = are not. Can't = can not. 

Write the equivalents for the contractions given 
above and for those you have added. 

Exercise 50 

MISCELLANEOUS EEEOES: HOMONYMS, 
USAGE, ETC. 

Use the following correctly in sentences. 

Explain the point in grammar involved in their 
correct use. 

Accept, affect, almost, already, an, awful, don't, effect, 
except, good, it's, lay, laying, lying, led, myself, principle, 
principal, quite, real, there, their, to, too, well, you're, chosen, 
losing. 

Add to this list other words commonly used incor- 
rectly as to grammar. 

Errors in grammar are often made by using incor- 
rectly homonyms — words which sound alike but are 
spelled differently. 

The following are among those most often used 
incorrectly. 

See if you can add others. 

149 



Buy-by, coarse-course, here-hear, know-no, knew-new, 
right-write, rode-road-rowed, their-there, threw-through, to- 
too, shone-shown. 

Use them in sentences and give their grammatical 
structure. 



150 









Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATIOK 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

II II 111 II II IMI II 



003 243 606 7 



